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LETTER 



COMMISSlOiNER OF AGRICULTURE 



HON. JNO. W. JOHNSTON, 

CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE ON AGRICULTURE, U. .S. SENATE, 



ON 



SORGHUM SUGAR. 



WASHINGTON: 

.aOVERNMENT PIMNTINO OFFTCIE, 

IS 80. 



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flA.S 'JJjlLJ. of c»-,«^a^A/Xtu./c«. . iXj-jQ^rC^ ^K^. 1(0-2 

LETTER 



OF THE 



COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE 



TO THE 



HON. JNO. W. JOHNSTON, 

CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE ON AGRICULTURE, U. S. SENATE, 



SORGHUM SUGAR. 



WASHINGTON: 
aOYEKNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1880. 



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Department of Agriculture, 

Washington, B. C, April 8, 1880. 
Hon. Jno. W. Johnston, 

United States Senate : 

Sir : I have the liouor to acknowledge the receipt of your communi- 
cation of tlie 24tli ultimo, inclosing Senate bill No. 1514, and also the 
resolution introduced by Hon. A. S. Paddock, and adopted in committee, 
requesting the Commissioner of Agriculture "to furnish a written report 
giving all the information in his power in regard to the manufacture of 
sugar from sorghum and Chinese sugar-cane, its cost, the character and 
cost of the machinery necessary, &c., together with statistics of the con- 
sumption and production of sugar in the United States and all matters 
bearing on the subject." 

Eeplying seriatim to these inquiries, I submit the following, in some 
respects hastily-prepared, statement, which, while it is not as comi:)lete 
an answer to the resolution as I would desire to make, yet is as full as 
can be prepared in the limited time at my command. 

The introduction and widespread distribution by the department of 
the variety of sorghum called Minnesota Early Amber (the juice of which 
is supposed to granulate more readily than that of many other varieties) 
has given a great impetus within the past two years to the cultivation 
of the sorghum cane and to the manufacture of sugar therefrom. It is 
earlier than any other known variety, ripening its seed in from ninety to 
one hundred days, and (as apj)ears from reports made to the department, 
and in which are given the results obtained in almost every State in the 
Union) yields bountifully an excellent quality of sirup, besides, in many 
cases, good sugar, although all the operations reported, except the opera- 
tion of F. A. Waidner & Co. at Crystal Lake, 111., were carried on with 
open-pan evaporation. It should also be remarked that these reports 
show that the farmers who have raised this variety of cane during the past 
year believe it to be better, from the quality of juice obtained, as well 
as from the quantity per acre, than any other variety previously culti- 
vated. These opinions, however, are the opinions of farmers who have 
not had the opportunity to make comparative tests, and wlio compare 
the results with those obtained from former cultivation and manipulation, 
from their recollection rather than from note-books in which experiments 
have been carefully recorded. 

We have now in the department some thirty-two varieties of sugar- 
liroducing sorghums and millets, all of which are valuable to a greater or 
less degree, according to the varying soil, climate, cultivation, seasons, 
and process of manufacture. That other valuable varieties of sorghum 
are to be obtained is altogether probable. The so-called Honduras sor- 
ghum is only one of the varieties native to the country of Honduras ; 
and I have information that leads me to believe that there are several 
1 AG 



varieties growing' iu Central America and also at tlie month of Eio de la 
Plata, in South America. It is not impossible that varieties superior to 
any we now ha"S"e may, in a few years, be common amongst us. It is of 
h e highest importance to the country at large that all obtainable varie- 
ties of cane should be carefully and scientifically examined 5 and, if pos- 
sible, they should be grown in various soils and climates, that we may 
know which is best adapted to particular localities, which will give the 
best results for the least expense, and which, in the hands of the least 
intelligent, can be most easily manipulated. 

For the northern part of the United States there is probably no cane 
so suitable as the Early Amber ; and, perhaps, it might be said that no 
other variety would ripen sufliciently to yield sugar with certainty (al- 
though it might give good sirup) above the latitude of Chicago. Below 
this latitude the Liberian might be planted as auxiliary to the Early 
Amber, while in the latitude of Saint Louis and to the south of it, Hon- 
duras sorghum should be added to the other two varieties ; thus ex- 
tending the season for working the cane into sugar many weeks beyond 
the period that could b'e utilized in this way if but one kind of cane 
were planted — the Early Amber ripening in about ninety to one hun- 
dred days, the Chinese two weeks later, and the Honduras some five 
weeks after the Chinese, all being i>lanted at the same time. 

Illustrations of the seed-bearing tops of these different varities have 
been prepared for the forthcoming annual report of this department 
and are included in this reply, in iuclosure marked A. 

At a meeting of the i^orth western Cane Growers' Association held 
in Minnesota last season, the subject of planting, cultivating, and har- 
A^esting Early Amber cane and of its manufacture into sugar was so 
thoroughly discussed that a resume of tlie proceedings of that conven- 
tion will probably give as much practical information on the question 
as can be condensed into the same space. The convention decided that 
as to the kind of seed to be planted in Minnesota there was no room 
for debate, the Early Amber being the only soi-t that would ripen in 
that high latitude; but tbe discussion of the characteristics of soil best 
adapted to the cane showed some difference of opinion as to the availa- 
bility of new land. But for fuller information touching, these matters 
I would respectfully refer you to iuclosure marked B. 

The experimental work done at the department during the past two 
years iu examining different sorghums has shown that old ideas in 
relation to the habit of the different varieties of this plant need to be 
corrected in many respects. The chemist of the department has demon- 
strated that there is practically but little if any difference in the juice 
of different varieties ; that all varieties produce sugar that can be easily 
granulated, if the cane be taken at the proper period of growth; and 
that the only important question yet to be determined is as to the variety 
that will yield the largest amount in a given soil and climate. The 
Early Amber, the Liberian, the Chinese, and the Honduras, planted 
the past year within the corporate limits of this city, all yielded excel- 
lent results, as will be seen from the following report of the chemist of 
the department, prepared for our annual report for 1879 not yet pub- 
lished : 

Hon. W. G. Le Due, 

Commissioner of Agriculture : 

Sir : I have the honor to r-ibmit the following results of our recent experiments in 
the manufacture of sugar from the stalks of corn, sorghum, and pearl millet, made at 
the Agricultural Department during the year 1879. 

Duiing the past season there have been made several series of investigations for the 



purpose of determining the development of sugar in tlie juices of several varieties of 
sorglium and of pearl millet, and the results are such as to warrant their being given 
to the people at the earliest opportunity. 

These investigations api)ear to demonstrate that there exists little difference between 
the various kinds of sorghum as. sugar-producing plants ; and, what is quite a sur- 
prising result, each of them is, at a certain period of its development, nearly if not 
quite as rich in sugar as tlie very best of sugar-cane. It is a matter, also, of extreme 
practical importance that this maximum content of sugar is maintained for a long 
period, and affords sufficient time to work up a large crop. Another result of these 
investigations has been to satisfactorily explain the canse of repeated failure in the 
production of sugar dirring the past quarter of a century, and to give the assurance 
that in the future such failure need not attend tiiis industry. For the purpose of 
making clear the above points, the results obtained in the laboratory and in out-of- 
door experiments are appended. 

The varieties of sorghum grown and subjected to continuous investigation during 
the season were Early Amber, White Liberian, Chinese, and Honduras, and Pearl 
Millet. Besides the above there were made very many examinations of other speci- 
mens of sorghums and corn-stalks ; all the results of which only confirmed the general 
principle above stated, viz, the practical equality and great value of every variety of 
this plaut. 

In the following table are given the results of the analysis of each of the plants in 
the successive stages of development. It will be observed that the amount of glucose 
(or uncrystallizable sugar) diminishes, and the amount of sucrose (or true cane-sugar) 
increases. It will also be observed that the plants differ widely in the date when the 
sucrose is at its maximum, but are alike in this, that this maximum is attained at 
about the same degree of development of the plaut, viz, at full matiu'ity, as indicated 
by the hard, dry seed, and the appearance of ofl'-shoots from the upper joints of the 
stalk. It is also to be observed that the heavy frost of October 24, which was suffi- 
cient to produce one-half inch of ice, did not cause any marked diminution of sugar. 

For purpose of comparison, analyses are also appended of three varieties of sugar- 
cane received from Louisiana, Avhich arrived in excellent condition, and doubtless 
fairly repi-esented the average character of this famous sugar-plant. 

It will be understood that the results of these tables are to be taken as a whole, since 
it was practically impossible to secure in each case specimen stalks for examination 
in the laboratory, the development of which in every case corresponded to the date 
when the plant was cut, and, therefore, it doubtless happened that })lants taken from 
the same row upon September 15, for example, were in reality no further developed 
than those selected a week earlier, but taken as a Avliole the several series of analyses 
are convincing as showing the rate and progress of development of saccharine matter 
in the plant. 

By reference to the tables it will be seen that the analyses made of the several 
sorghums under date of October 29, were, after they had been subjected to a very hard 
frost, sufficient to have formed ice one-half inch iu thickness, and this cold weather 
continued for four days before this examination was made. As will be soen, there 
appears no diminution of sucrose in either of the stalks examined and no increase of 
glucose as the result of this freezing and continued exposure to a low temperature. 
The examination of November 8 was made after a few days of warm weather had fol- 
lowed this cold spell, and the influence of this subsequent thaw is noticeable in the 
diminution of sucrose and the increase of glucose in each specimen examined. 

From this it would ai)pear that the effect of cold, even protracted, is not injurious 
to the quality of tlie cam^s, but that they should be speedily worked up after freezing 
and before they have again thawed out. This is a matter of such iiractical importance 
that some experiments should be made to learn whether the sirup prei^ared from the 
juice of frozen cane differs from that ijrepared from cane not frozen but in other re- 
spects of like quality. 

The Early Amber, Chinese, Liberian, and Honduras sorghuiiis and the Pearl Millet 
examined, mentioned as having been grown niion the department grounds, were all 
planted the same day. May 15, 1879. 

The relative weights of the different kinds of sorghum experimented upon are as 
follows : 

Pounds. 

Early Amber, average of 40 stalks 1.73 

White Liberian, average of 38 stalks 1. 80 

Chinese, average of 25 stalks 2. 00 

Hondiuas, average of 16 stalks 3. 64 

Since these were all grown side by side and upon land presumably of equal fertility, 
it will alford the data for calculating the relative amount of each variety to be grown 
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16 

For purpose of fiirfclier comparison the following analyses of sugar-canes and juice 
of the sugar-cane grown in Madras, India, are given below. The canes were divided 
into upper, middle, and lower thirds, each third being 2 feet in length, except the 
lower thirds of the selected canes, which were 3 feet in length. 



Bandle of medium good canes. Bundle of selected canes. 



Upper 
third. 



Middle 
third. 



Lower Upper 
third. third. 



Bagasse ■ 7. G30 

Sucrose | 10. 6:W 

Glucose I 2. G40 

Ash .307 

"Water i 78.334 

Undetermined | . 459 



8.470 

13. 310 

1.510 

.259 

75. 612 

.839 



8. SOCi 

13. 370 

1.540 

.233 

76. 122 

.4.55 



7.580 
9.490 
2.430 

.545 
79. 484 

.471 



Middle Lower 
third. third. 



8.650 

13. 640 

.736 

.363 

75. 628 



100.000 i 100.000 



100. 000 100. 000 



100. 000 



8.290 

13. 850 

.710 

.349 

75. 945 

.856 



100. 000 



ANALYSIS OF EXPRESSED JUICE. 





11.510 

2. 860 

.333 

.497 
84. 800 


14. 550 

1.650 

.283 

.917 

82. 600 


14. 580 

1.680 

. 2.55 

. 485 

83. 000 


10. 270 

2.630 

.590 

.510 

86. 000 


14. 930 

.806 

.398 

1.076 

82. 790 


15. ] 10 




.775 


Ash 


.381 
934 


Water 


82. 800 








100. 000 


100. 000 


100. 000 


100. 000 


100. 000 


100. 000 



Chem. Cent. Blatt., February, 1880. 



For more clearly presenting the facts developed bj- the examinations of the four 
kinds of sorghum, the following chart represents graphically the foregoing results : 

It will bo observed how closely the Early Amber and Liberian correspond in their 
development, being almost identical, and yet being clearly distinct varieties. It will 
also be seen that "while these two varieties attain a content of sugar in their juices 
equal to the average content in the juice of sugar-cane by the middle of August, the 
Chine.se does not reach this condition until the last of September, while the Honduras 
does not reach this point until the middle of October. 

It will be seen also that after having attained appro.'cimately the maximum content 
of sugar, this condition is maintained for a long period, affording ample time to work 
up the crop. 

It is doublcss true that had the season been longer it would have been found that 
the Chinese and Honduras having once attained this full development of sugar 
would also have retained it ; but, as is seen by the chart, the heavy frosts and sub- 
sequent warm weather which happened about November 24, caused a rapid dimi- 
nution of sucrose in each variety, and a corresponding increase in glucose. 

The converse of what is found true of the sucrose is clearly shown as to the devel- 
opment of the glucose, and it is seen that a minimum quantity once attained is 
continued a long time, and that this minimum is quite as low as the average amount 
found present in the sugar-canes. 

It is obvious that the results depicted upon the chart are not to be taken as entirely 
exact, but the general fact represented is without doubt true, and with a still larger 
number of observations the approach to true curves would be found nearer than here 
represented. 

The line representing the average per cent, of sucrose in sugar-beets is from the re- 
sults of analysis of thirteen specimens of sugar-beets grown upon the Agricultural Col- 
lege farm, Amherst, Mass., and analyzed by Profe.ssor Groessmann (olde Mass. Agric. 
Kept., 1870-'71). 

An average of all the examinations made of these four sorglmms during these pe- 
riods when they were suitable for cutting gives the following results : 

Early Amber, from August 13 to October 29 inclusive, 1.5 analyses extending over 
78 days, 14.6 per cent, sucrose. 

Liberian, froiji August 13 to October 23 inclusive, 13 analyses, extending over 78 
days, 13.8 per cent, sucrose. 

Chinese, from September 13 to October 23 inclusive, 7 analyses, extending over 46 
<Iays, 13.8 per cent, sucrose. 

Honduras, from October ,14 to October 29 inclusive, 3 analyses, extending over IG 
days, 14.6 per cent, sucrose. 

Besides the investigations above mentioned, there have beau made 35 experiments 









TT. 


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17 

iu making sugar from corjistalks, sorghums, pearl millet, &c., in all of which there 
have been used over "23 tons of stalks. The result of these experiments has heen to 
fully contiriii all the experiments of the previous year, not only, but also to help to- 
wards the solution of certain questions of the highest practical importance. In 
every case it has 1>een found that the quality of the sirup obtained has been precisely 
such as the previous analysis iu the laboratory of the juice used made probable. An 
average of the nine best sirups obtained showed a percentage of cane-sugar present 
equal to 92.7 of the amount originally present in the juice, while an average of the 
nine poorest (i. e., containing the lowest percentage of cane-sugar) showed a percent- 
age of cane-sugar present equal to 90.1 of the amount present in the juice. 

This must not be understood to menu that there has beeu no loss of sugar in the 
process of manufacture, as such conclusion would be quite erroneous, as Avill be seen 
by consulting taldes further on in this report. 

Below are given the detailed results of 33 experiments in the making of sirups from 
sorghum, pearl millet, and cornstalks, and analyses of the juices from wliich these 
sirups were made. These stalks were obtained from neighboring farmers, and, as will 
be seen, were never in the condition best suited for working, l»ut the results obtained 
from them are, however, of great practical value, and are given in detail. 

The last column represents the relative loss of sucrose in making sirup, as compared 
with the glucose present, but gives no indication as to the absolute loss which may 
have been incurred, and since tlie economical production of sugar largely depends 
upon the amount of this loss, tliis matter is discussed more fully in another place. 

2 aG 



18 



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19 

The apparatus used iu tlie experiments, besides a few barrels and pails for holding 
the juice, consisted of a copper tank of the following dimensions : 4 feet 3 inches long, 
2 feet 3 inches deep, 2 feet 3 inches wide ; a galvanized iron pan 9 feet long 8 inches 
deep, 3 feet 6 inches wide. This iron pan was surrounded by a wooden frame of 
2-iuch plank so as to support the sides, and each pan was placed in brickwork 
with chimney, and so arranged as to permit a fire to be kept below it iu direct 
contact with the bottom. In the case of the copper tank the flame played about 
the sides also, so as to heat the contents more rapidly. The galvanized iron pan 
was such as could readily be constructed by any ordinary tinsmith or mechanic. The 
copper tank was tised for defecation with lime ; the galvanized iron pan for evapora- 
tion. The process, in brief, is as follows ; after topping and stripping the corn or sor- 
ghum, it was passed through the mill, and when sufficient juice had been obtained it 
was heated in the copper tank to a temperature of 82° C. =180° F. After the jiiice had 
reached this temperature, there was added to it, with stirring, cream of lime, until a 
])iece of litmus paper dip])ed in the juice showed a purple or bluish-purple color. 
The heat was now raised to the boiling point, and, so soon as the juice was in good ebul- 
lition, the fire was drawn and a thick scum removed from the surface of the juice. 
After a few minutes the sediment from the juice subsided, and by means of a siphon 
the clear liquid was decanted off, leaving a muddy sediment, which was equal to 
about one-tenth to one-twentieth of the bulk of the juice. It was found that by means 
of the stop-cock at the bottom of the defecator, it Avas possible to draw off the clar- 
ified juice more thoroughly than by means of the siphon, so that this juetliod has 
been adopted for removing the juice. It is only necessary to collect in a separate ves- 
sel the first portions of juice coming from stop-cock, which are turbid, and passing this 
through the bag filter with the sediment. This muddy sediment was then drawn oft' 
by means of a stop-cock and filtered through a plaited-bag filter, and the clear filtrate 
therefrom was added to the liquid previously siphoned off. The clarified juice, which, 
during the above operation, is not allowed to cool below a temperatnre of 66° C. or 150'^ 
F., was now emptied into the evaporating pan, and there was added to it, with stirring, 
Ji solution of sulphurous acid in water until the lime present Avas neutralized, as was 
shown by the reddening of litmus paper when it was dipjied iu the juice. The 
evaporation was now hastened cas much as possible, and the juice concentrated to a 
sirup at a boiling point of 112° C, equal to 234° F., or thereabout. During the close of 
the evaporation there is great danger of scorching the sirup, and this was obviated 
by allowing only coals beneath the evaporator and briskly stirring the syrup by means 
of paddles 8 or 10 inches wide. When the sirup reached the density aijove indicated 
it was drawn oft' into wooden tubs, the fire having previously been drawn from beneath 
the evaporator. 

It is doubtless true that many failures result iu securing a crystallizable sirup even 
from good juice, owing to the operations of j)ressing of the cane, defecation, and evap- 
oration being too much x)rt'tracted. In order that those wishing to enter upon this 
industry may know what is practically attainable, even with common appliances, 
the following data, are giA^en. 

In experiment No. 3, 2, 107 pounds of topped stalks of Early Amber cane were pressed 
by the mill in 3^ hours, yielding 97.') pounds of juice. The time required for heating 
the jnice, defecation with lime, and cA'aporationto sirup Avas 5f hoiu's. In order that 
the inferior character of the material supplied for these experiments might be known, 
specimens Avere taken from the several lots of stalks in experiments Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 
it was found that the average weight of the stalks in these lots was four ounces each. 

In most of the experiments above recorded the juice was raised to the temperature 
of 82° C. ( 180° F. ), and then neutralized with milk of lime, but scA'cral experiments were 
matle to learn the effect produced by neutralization with lime at dift'erent tempera- 
tures. 

In experiment No. 4 the juice was divided into two portions, and the lime was 
added to the one portion at '40° C. (104° F.) ; to the oth'er portion at 2.5° C. (77° F.), 
and the portions were separately evaporated to sirup. 

In experiment No. 13 the lime was added directly after the juice Avas obtained from 
the mill, the temperature being 16° C. (61° F.). 

In experiment No. 18, the lime was added at 80° C. (176° F.). 

In the aboA'e-mentioned exi^erimeuts the results were entirely satisfactory, and 
seem to indicate that the neutralization by means of lime may be effected at any stage 
below 82° C. No experiments -vrere made in neutralizing at higher temperature than 
82° C. 

An experiment was also made to determine whether splitting the canes before they 
were passed through the mill Avould increase the percentage of juice obtained from 
the stalks. One hundred pounds of butt ends of Honduras sorghuin were split length- 
wise and then passed through the mill. Another parcel of one hundred pounds of 
ItuttK of the same variety of sorghum, equal in all respects to the previous lot, was 
passed tlu'ough the mill without splitting them. The results obtained were as fol- 
lows: Percentage of juice obtained from split stalks, .54 per cent. ; percentage of juice 



20 

obtaiuetl from imsplit stalks, 57 per cent., from whicli it would appear tliat iu this 
case, at least, the previous splitting of the stalks occasioned an appreciable loss iujuice. 

In plate 27 the apparatus used iu those exi)6riment8 is figured, showing the relative 
position of mill, pans, &c. 

Two pans only are represented as being in use, viz : the defecating pan upon the left 
hand in the wood-cut and the evaporator upon the right band. The stop-cocks by 
which the contents of the defecating pan are removed is not shown in the plate, being 
concealed by the small evaporator in front. A space of about two feet separates the 
brick work underneath the several pans, x>ermitting one to pass easily about them. 

The apparatus represented in the rear is used for making sulphui'oas acid solution, 
and consists of a small-sized hot water tank for kitchen range, about 40 inches long 
and 10 inches diameter. Into this powdered charcoal and oil of vitriol are put, and 
the sulphurous gas is passed through iron pipes into a wasb-bottle containing oil of 
vitriol, and from thence into a barrel nearly filled with water. A safety tube is con- 
nected with the wash-bottle to prevent any possible rushing back of the water into 
the generator in case of the Avithdrawal of the heat. By this apparatus a barrel or 
two of the solution may be made in a short time and at an expense not over 75 cents 
per barrel. For two barrels there would be required 75 pounds of oil of vitriol and 7 
pounds of powdered charcoal. 

A few of the experiments made give a reasonable basis for estimating the ])robable 
yield of sirup and sugar to the acre ; and, therefore, an approximate estimate of the 
cost of producing sugar. 

Below is a tabulated result of a few of the experiments from stalks grown iipou the 
gi'ounds of the department. These stalks were grown in rows 3 feet apart, and in 
drills, and although a good crop, there is no doubt but that upon good land the esti- 
mated yield to the acre could be obtained : 



^ 



2 ° 

o 



Chinese sorghum | 38, 600 

Liberian sorghiim ; 33, 727 

Early Amber sorghum ' 32, 415 

Honduras sorghum CG, 151 

PearlmiUet.A 65,000 

Field corn , 27,240 



2, 096 
2,472 
2,100 

3, 652 
1,846 
1,166 



2,397 
2,609 
2,615 
5,168 
3,128 



3,673 

3,783 
3,661 
7.537 
4, 865 
1. 807 



The first and second columns give the results actually secured, but the several juices 
were not in their best condition as compared with the resiilts given in the first table. 
The third column is the amount of sii-up the same weight of stalks would have yielded 
had they been cut at the proper time. The juice obtained from the stalks by the im- 
perfect means at command of the department was little more thau half the amount 
present in the stalks. 

The fourth column represents the results attainable by the use of a mill that would 
give 70 per cent, of juice from the stalks; a result which is possible, and which is 
claimed by manufacturers of mills. 

There is no doubt but that, when the present industry shall have secured the em- 
ployment of the capital and scientific ability which has developed the beet-sugar 
industry, even these results, which may appear extravagant to many, will be assured." 

Although, as has been stated, these sirups were obtained from stalks in Avhich the 
maximum content of sugar had not yet been developed, they did, however, all crystal- 
lize well, and all yielded excellent sugai*. 

At the present the sugar has been separated from but the Chinese sorghum sirup, 
which yielded in the first crop of crystals 54.7 i)er cent, of its weight iu sugar ; the 
Early Amber sirup, which yielded 47.5 per cent, of sugar; and from the field-coru 
sirup, which yielded 39.3 per cent, of sugar. This latter experiment is worthy of 
esj)ecial mention, since the result secured is not only most surprising, but contrary to 
an almost universal belief. The corn-stalks used were of three varieties : Lindsay's 
Horse Tooth, Improved Prolific, and White Dent ; three coarse-growing white field 
corns. The stalks grew in drills 3 feet apart, and about 9 or 10 inches apart in the 
drill. The ears were plucked after they had thoroughly ripened, and the husks were 
dead and dry. The corn was i^luinp and sound, and yielded at the rate of Gy. I bushels 
of shelled corn (56 pounds to the bushel) to the acre. The stalks were then topped, 
stripped, and crushed, and the juice proved to be the best juice yet obtained from 
corn-stalks, at any period of growth or of any variety. 



21 

Below are given the results of the examiuation of the stalks of Egyptian sugar-corn, 
Honduras and Early Amber sorghums, and the leaves from the same. This examina- 
tion was made for the purpose of determining the loss of sngar in the method employed 
in its extraction, also to determine the relative nutritive value of the leaves and 
stalks, pressed and unpressed. The stalks selected were split lengthwise, so that a 
fair average might be taken, and one-half was dried thoroughly without pressing, and 
the other half was passed through the mill, and the bagasse, or pressed stalks, care- 
fully saved and dried. 

Leaves, stalks, and bagasse from corn and sorghums 



Egyptian sugar-corn, leaves 

Egyptian sugar-corn, one-Half of 4 stripped stalks, unpressed 

Egyptian sugar-corn, one-half of 4 stripped stalks, pressed . . . 

Honduras sorghum, leaves 

Honduras sorghum, one-half of 2 stripped stalks, un- 
pressed. 

Honduras sorghum, one-half of 2 stripped stalks, pressed 

Early Amber sorghum, leaves 

Early Amber sorghum, one-half of 3 stripped stalks, im- 
pressed. 

Early Amber sorghum, one-half of 3 stripped stalks, 
pressed. 



380 
832 
875 
432 
1,428 

1,390 
399 
651 



460 ! 415 47.43 



i 


724 1 666 


47.91 


1 




1 

1 

458 j 447 

1 • 


49.39 



116.6 
126.0 
90.0 
100.8 
285.3 

222. 7 
99^7 
157.9 

147.8 



67.3 
84.9 

88.7 
76.7 
80.0 

84.0 
75.0 

75.7 



A determination of the proximate constituents of the dried leaves, stalks, and bagasse 
is given below, from which it will appear that there still remains a large amount of 
sugar in the bagasse which the process employed failed to remove from the cane or 
stalks, also that the per cent, of starch compounds is greater in the pressed than in 
the unpressed stalks, and that the percentage of nitrogenous matter remains nearly 
the same. Since the nutritive value of the pressed stalks is nearly if not quite equal 
to that of the umpressed stalks, weight for weight, and as they arc left in a mechan- 
ical condition suitable for their preservation as green fodder by the system of en- 
silage, it would appear desirable that experiments be made leading to their utiliza- 
tion for this piu'pose. 

Proximate analyses of stalks, bagasse, and leaves of sweet corn and sorghum, calculated to 

the dry substance. "^ 







1 


e 


<o 


C3 


3 


o 


it 

o 


i 








is 
11 


g 

° o 


1g- 


.1 

tM I-' 

O c« 


B 
-A 

II 


li 


1 

li 




pa 


is 

ft 


S a 
9 A 


O 31 


1 


1 




o 

i 
















c3 










t" 


t= 


^ 


W 


W 


M 


vA 


(-1 


yA 


Organic acid, chlorophyll, 

color. 
Wax 


7.36 


5.39 


2.85 


1.47 


2.01 


1.11 


1.46 


3.29 


1.48 


.94 


.33 


.44 


.35 


.84 


.40 


.5.05 


1.67 


.54 




6.98 


6.00 


8.11 


5.11 


3.53 


5 75 


7.91 


6 67 


5.20 


Sugars 


34.73 


38.14 


26. 01 


19.36 


21.77 


10.08 


8.58 


9.37 


8.21 


Gum 


2.14 


1.57 


1.38 


2.04 


2.20 


1.33 


3.82 


2.78 


4.54 


Starch isomers 


20.34 


17.67 


22.44 


31.46 


26.27 


23.16 


14.49 


21.22 


24.77 




4.95 


4.81 
5. 15 


6.90 
6.09 


3.96 
13.35 


3.87 
15.10 


6.04 
22.26 


13.14 
12.08 


10.43 
11.98 


11.34 


Alkali extract, bv differ- 


12.65 


ence. 




















Crude fiber 


16.01 


16.48 


19.82 


19.10 


20.60 


25.00 


17.98 


18.51 


20.83 


Ash, by ignition , 


6.55 


4.46 


5.96 


3.80 


3.75 


4.87 


15.49 


14.08 


10.44 


. . m 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 



22 



By reference to the two iirecediug- tables, it will be seen that a very large percent 
age of the sugar was lost by the method employed in its production. 

The amount of sugar in the Early Amber cane, dry, is to the amount present iu tht 
Early Amber bagasse, dry, as 100 is to 55.74. 

In Honduras cane, dry : Honduras bagasse, dry : : 100 : 57.08. 

In Egyptian sugai--coru, dry : Egyptian sugar-corn bagasse, dry : : 100 : 38.75. 

As will be seen from these analyses — 

Per cent, sugar. 

The Honduras cane, fresh, contained 7.62 

The Early Amber cane, fresh, contained 8.42 

The Egyi^tian sugar-corn, fresh, contained 3.94 

while the sugar remaining in the bagasse, calculated to the fresh cane which produced 
these bagasses, gave as follows : 

Per cent, sugar. 

Honduras sorghum 3.49 

Early Amber sorghum 3. 16 

Egyptian sugar-corn 1.14 

In other words, it will appear that there was occasioned a loss of — 

46.4 per cent, of the sugar present iu Honduras sorghum. 

37.4 per cent, of the sugar present in Early Amber sorghum. 

28.9 per cent, of the sugar present in Egyptian sugar-corn. 

The importance, therefore, of a good mill cannot be overestimated, aiul it is desir- 
able that efforts bo made to devise some process by which results approximating those 
obtained in the extraction of sugar from beets shall be attained, since it is obvious 
that should the beet-sugar industry be conducted in so wasteful a manner as is the 
production of sugar from cane or from sorghum, this important industry could not 
survive a year, even in those countries most favorably circumstanced iu regard to th€ 
production of beet sugar. 

For convenience the following results which were obtained last year are appended, 
since these experiments were only confirmed this year, but the results have not been 
tabulated. 

In the exiierimeuts made with corn-stalks the stalks were invariably stripped, tht 
tops being cut off at about the second joint. The percentage of stripped stalks, leaves, 
and tops is given in this table : 





Corn-stalks. 


: Per cent, of 
stripped 
stalks. 

1 


Per cent, o 
leaves an< 
tops. 


No.l 




67.57 


32.4; 


No. 2 




58. 69 


31.3 


If 08. 3 and 4 




67. 46 


32.5^ 












67. 91 


32. 0< 







In those cases where the sorghum was stripped and toi)j)ed the following percentagt 
of stripped stalks and of leaves and tops was obtained: 



Sorghum. 


Per cent, of 
stripped 
stalks. 


Percent, oi 
leaves ant 
tops. 


No. 5 




72.67 
72.55 


27.3;: 


No.6 


27. 4tl 










72.61 


27. 3£ 







On account of the trouble in stripping the stalks, experiments were made with .stalk ( 
unstripped, the tops alone being removed, and these experiments appear to prove that 
this troublesome operation of stripping may be avoided without any diminution oi 
the amount of jiucc or of sugar obtained therefrom. 

Below are the results obtained from sti'ipped and unstripped sorghum, calculated tc 
the raw stalks used. 

By raw stalks is meant the stalks as they were cut in the field, leaves, tops, and all, 



Stripped sorghum, two experiments 

Unstripped sorghum, live experiments. 



Avei'age per 
cent, of juice 
to raw stalks. 



35.02 
40.60 



Average pei 
cent, simp 
in juice. 



IS.Ofl 
15.47 



23 



From the above it will be seen that not only Avas an increased aiuonnt of juice ob- 
tained, but that this jnice gave an increased percentage of sirup, and there appears 
nothing unusual in the treatment of this juice from the unstripi)ed cane, nor was there 
any appreciable difference iu the readiness of the sirup to crystallize, nor in the char- 
acter of the sugar hually obtained. 

Although perhaps further experiments are desirable before considering this iioint as 
settled, it would appear from the above that not only was stripping unnecessary, but 
that it really involved a loss in the amount of sugar to be obtained ; at least the above 
results indicate a difference of twenty per cent, increase in product in favor of the un- 
stripped cane. It is not improbable that the above result is due to the fact that the 
leaves in passing through the mill tended to fill up the interstices between the com- 
pressed cane, and thus prevented the expressed juice from flowing through between 
the rolls with the bagasse. In case of discoloration by action of moisture or other 
causes, it will, however, be advisable, and probably necessary, to strip the stalks. 

Several experiments were also made with borh corn-stalks and sorghum to determine 
the relative value of the upper and lower half of the stalks, with the results given in 
the followiuir table : 



Corn-stalks, butt ends, No. 3 
Corn-stalks, top ends. No. 4 . 
Sorghum, butt ends, No. 8 . . 
Sorghum, butt ends, No. 10. .■ 
Sorghum, top ends, No. 9. ... 
Sorghum, top euds.No. 11... 



Percentage of 


Specific grav- 


juice to stalks. 


ity of juice. 


29.04 


1053 


19.94 


1050 


47.49 


1059 


41.49 


1062 


43.16 


1057 


34.09 


1059 



Percentage of 
sirup in juice. 



14.62 
13.46 
16.41 

16.47 
14.70 
14.26 



Nos. 8 and 9 were the butts and tops of the same stalks, and were cut just after a 
rain, as were also Nos. 10 and 11, from which the rain had evaporated, and the 
diff"erence in yield of juice and sirup between butts and tops is nearly constant. The 
increase in specific gravity of the juice from butts over that from the top is also worthy 
of notice. 

From the above table the conclusion from the average restilts is, that the proportion, 
by weight, of sugar in the lower half of the stalk is to the sugar in the upper half as 
follows : Corn butts to corn tops as 159 to 100 ; sorghum butts to sorghum tops as 131 
is to 100. As will be seen by reference to the first table, the stalks of both corn and 
sorghum in the above experiment were divided almost equally by weight into butts 
and tops, so that the above pro})ortion fairly represents the proportion of yield of sugar 
in the ui^jier and lower half of the cane. There was a marked difference in the ap- 
pearance of the juice as it flowed from the mill (that from the butts being lighter in 
color, especially in tlie experiments Avith corn), but after clarification no appreciable 
difference could be observed, nor was there any difference in the product except the 
(juantitative one above mentioned, which was, however, a marked difference. Also, 
there was a marked difference in granulation in favor of the juice from the butts. 

The experiments of this year (1879) doubtless explain some of the results of the 
previous year; since it is i>robably true that, owing to immaturity, the tops had not 
yet attained their maximum content of sugar. A study of the previous tables giving 
results of the analysis of sorghums shows that up to a certain period the lower half of 
the cane is the best, but that this does not remain true of the sorghum, as it does of 
the sugar-cane in Louisiana, since the sorghum does have time to comx^letely mature, 
which is not true of the sugar-cane in our country. 

In the following table there have been calculated from the results given of the ex- 
periments iu the making of sugar the following : 

1st. The percentages of the sugar present iu the juices oi>erated upon, which were 
obtained in the sirup. 

"2d. The percentage of crystallizable sugar (sucrose) present in the juices Avhich was 
obtained in the sirup. 

'.k\. The percentage of uncrystallizable sugar (glucose) iireseut in the juices, which 
Nvas obtained in the sirup. 

4th. The percentage of crystallizable sugar present in the juices, Avhich was inverted 
by the process of manufacture. 

5th. The percentage of uncrystallizable sugar (glucose) destroyed during the process 
of manufacture. 

The presence of the same relative proportions of crystallizable and uncrystallizable 
sugar in a sirup to those present in the juice trom which thissrup has been prepared, 
by no means implies that there has been no inversion of the crystallizable sugar; for 
the destructive action of an excess of lime upon glucose is well known and is not un- 
frequeutly made available in the production oi^ sugar. Hence it not unfrequently 
happens that the relative quantity of crystallizable sugar in the sirup may begre.ill.N- 
in excess of that present in the juice, even after alarge quantity of the crystal]!;-;il)li> 



24 



su'^iu- has been destroyed by iuversiou. It is only possible ilien to dotevmiue the char- 
acter oi" the changes which have taken place in the sugars during the process of manu- 
facture, by quantitatively determining the amounts of sucrose and glucose in the 
juices and in the sirups prepared from them. 

Since, obviously, this is a question of the greatest practical importance, as bearing 
upon the profitableness of the production of sugar Ixom corn-stalks or sorghum, the 
tables following will be studied with interest by those engaged in this production. 

As will have been observed in the previous table, there is a constant but not lini- 
form discrepancy between the polarizatioii of the sirujis and the amount of crystal- 
lizable sugar found present by analysis. , 

Almost invariably the amount of sucrose found, present is somewhat in excess of the 
a,mount indicated by the polariscope. and this variation is such as to forbid any sup- 
position that it is the result of error in observation or in analytical work. 

This explanation may be found by consulting the following tables, by which it ap- 
pears that, although there is generally about the same amount of glucose in the sirups 
relative to the amount present in the juice (averaging 97.1 per cent.), there is still 
evidence of the destruction of au average of 35 per cent, of the glucose. This destruc- 
tion of glucose appears to be compensated, in part, by the inversion of a certain por- 
tion of the crystallizable sugar, and this inverted sugar possesses such action upon the 
polarized ray as to render the results of the polariscope practically worthless. 

Practically, it appears that the proportion of crystallizal^le sugar present in the 
juice, which may be obtained in the sirup, de[>ends greatly ujion the condition of the 
stalks when worked. For, as will be seen, the average amount secured in all these ex- 
periments was but 77.1 per cent., still in those sirups prepared from canes which were 
in the proper condition the amount was over 90 per cent, of the crystallizable sugar 
present in the juice ojierated upon. (See experiments A^os. 6 and 7.) It is not im- 
probable that even better results may he secured after further experiments shall have 
perfected the process of manufacture ; but in view of the fact that such results have 
been attained with such crude and simple ap]>aratns as that employed in the experi- 
ments liere recorded, this result is highly gratifying. 

"We may hope then to secure in sirup 90 per cent, of the crystallizable sugar jireseut 
in the juice operated upon. 



Xnmlior. 



fl ° a 



pa 



o * 
d 9 



^ ® fl 

s^-3 



8 . 

9 . 
10. 

11 . 

12 . 

13 . 

14 . 
15. 
It) . 

17 . 

18 . 
19. 

20 . 

21 . 
22. 
23. 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
HO 
.31 
32 



82.3 
74.7 
83.3 
8.5.1 
94.4 
92.9 
77.4 
89.5 
91.8 
79.0 
82.1 
80.4 
86.4 
95.6 



66.7 
66.1 
76.0 

80.2 
89.1 
91.7 
57.7 
87.1 
9.5.7 
69.7 
79.8 
67.5 
68.9 
98.7 



138.3 

102.1 

106.0 

107.8 

120.9 

103.6 

127.7 

96.5 

90.7 

91.2 

91.3 

114.5 

98.6 

110.6 



33.3 
33.9 
24.0 
19.8 
10.9 

8.3 
42.3 
12.9 

4.3 
30.3 
20.2 
32.5 
31.1 

1.3 



0.0 
31.8 
18.0 
12.0 



4.7 
14.6 
16.4 
13.6 
39.1 
28.9 
18.0 
32. 5 



87.4 
75. 5 
71.8 
70.1 
87.2 
86.3 
90.8 



83.3 

08.8 
OS. 7 
77.2 
82.9 
85.6 
69.3 



96.7 < 
103. 5 
80.4 
71.3 
96.8 
87.2 
98.3 



16.7 
31.2 
30. 3 
22. 8 
17.1 
14.4 
30.7 



20.0 
27.7 
49.9 
51.5 
20.3 
27.2 
32.4 



102. 2 
58. 3 
79^2 



102.7 
29.7 



102.0 
25.8 
37.5 



70.3 
71.2 



144.5 
133.7 



... 1 96. 1 


98.5 
79.2 
110.1 


92.8 
96.1 1 
133.2 .. 


1.5 
20.8 


8.7 


1 85. 4 


24.7 


' lis 5 










1 84 9 


77.5 


9.3.7 


22. 5 


28.8 


1 - 





77.1 



97.0 



34.7 



25 

Tlie results obtaiuod iu the expcriinents liuidc with stalks i'roiii Stowell's Evergreen 
Sweet Corn are most remarkable and demand ex])lauatiou. It will be seen that the 
Juice obtained from these stalks gave in the laboratory excellent results, and promised 
a sirup of fine quality. By reference to the tables it will be seen, however, that these 
sirups (see experiments Nos. 26 and 27) were wholly abnormal and very disappointing. 
These stalks were cut in Frederick, Md., Octoljer 11, packed iu a close car, and, through 
an oversight, allowed so to remain during oppressively hot weather until the 15th. 
They were worked up on the 16th, 17th, aiul 18th. Upon their arrival at Washington 
they were found so heated as to render their removal from the car even difficult, and 
yet, as will be seen, the juice expressed from them appeared of excellent quality, but 
every attempt to produce from it a crysfcallizable sirup failed, and an analysis of the 
sirup showed that a very large percentage of the sugar had been inverted (in exper- 
iments Xos. 26 and 27), and that the destruction of glucose in the sirup had been un- 
usually large, Avhile the amount of crystallizable sugar present in the juice, and re- 
covered in the sirup, was less than 30 per cent. 

A few of the results attained appear to be only explicable upon the supposition that 
there have been slight errors in analysis, but revision of the work fails to reveal such 
errors, and the results are given in full without omission, hoi>ing that future investi- 
gntion may enable us to solve difficulties which at present appear irreconcilable. 

Compailsou of the upper and lower halves of sor(/hum-canes. 

Per cent. 

Average per cent, of water in 17 specimens of Chinese sorghum tops . . 73. 0,5 

Average per cent, of water in 16 specimens of Chinese sorghum butts.. 74. 46 

Average per cent, of water in 20 specimens of Hondnr.as sorghum tops . . 72. 57 

Average per cent, of water in 20 specimens of Honduras sorghum., .butts.. 76. 15 

Average per cent, of water in 23 specimens of Liberian sorghum tops.. 71. 67 

Average per cent, of water in 23 specimens of Liberian sorghum butts.. 75.22 

Average per cent, of water iu 22 specimens of Early Amber sorghum . . .tops . . 72. 73 

Average per cent, of water in 22 specimens of Early Amber sorghum. butts.. 72. 13 

Average per cent, of juice from 10 specimens of Chinese sorghum tops.. 45. 17 

Average per cent, of juice from 10 specimens of Chinese sorghum., .butts.. 49. 89 

Average per cent, of juice fronr 16 specimens of Honduras sorghum. ..tops.. 42. 88 

Av<v,-age per cent, of juice from 17 specimens of Honduras sorghum.. butts. . 45. 44 

Average per cent, of jxiice from 13 siiecimens of Liberian sorglumi tops.. 42.63 

Average per cent, of juice from 13 specimens of Liberian sorghum . . .butts. . 44. 50 

Average percent, of juice from 11 specimens of Early Ambersorghum.. tops. 46. 68 

Average per cent, of juice from 11 specimensof Early Ambersorghum. butts.. 50. 58 
Average specific gravitv of juice from 17 specimens of Chinese sorghum, 

tops.: 1 1.0725 

Average sijecific ^Tavitv of juice from 17 specimens of Chinese sorghum, 

butts '. 1.0708 

Average specific gravitv of juice from 21 specimens of Honduras sorghum, 

tops \ 1.0602 

Average specific gravitv of juice from 21 specimens of Honduras sorghum, 

• butts ". 1.0584 

Average specific gravity of juice from 24 s])ecimens of Liberian sorghum, 

t ops 1. 0753 

Average specific gravitv of juice from 24 specimens of Lil)erian sorghum. 

butts ' 1.0730 

Average specific gravity of juice from 22 specimeus of Early^mber sorghujii, 

tops 1. 0765 

Average specific gravity of juice from 22 specimens of Early Amber sorghum, 

butts .' 1. 0771 

Average per cent, of solid matter in juice from 16 specimens of Chinese sor- 
ghum tops.. 16.21 

Average per cent, of solid matter in juice from 17 specimens of Chinese sor- 

'ghum butts . . 16. 81 

Average per cent, of solid matter in juice from 19 specimens of Honduras sor- 
ghum tops.. 13.85 

Average per cent, of solid matter in juice from 20 specimens of Honduras sor- 
ghum '. butts.. 13.82 

Average })ei' cent, of solid matter in juice from 23 specimens of Lil)erian sor- 
ghum tops . . 16. 01 

Average per cent, of solid tnatter in juice from 22 si>ecimeus of Liberian sor- 
ghum butts.. 16. 71 

Average per cent.-^f solid matter in juice from 19 specimens of Early Amber 

sorghum tops.. 17.59 

Average per cent, of solid matter in juice from 21 specimens of Early Amber 

sorjrhuni * butts . . 16. 75 



26 

Per cent- 

Avei'age jjcr cent, of water iu tops, 79 specimens 72. 45 

Average jier cent, of Avater in bntts, 79 specimcDS 74. .51 • 

Average per cent, of juice from tops, 50 si)ecimens 43. 9<) 

Average ]3er cent, of juice from butts, 51 specimens 40. 90 

Average per cent, of solids in juice from tops, 77 sjiecimens 16. IS 

Average per cent, of solids in juice from butts, 80 specimens IG. Q2 

Average specific gravity of juice from tops, 84 specimens 10. 71 

Average specific gravity of juice from butts, 84 specimens 10. 70 

From tlie above comparison it will ajjpear tliat there exists no marked diftereuce in 
the amount of juice present in the upper and lower halves of the canes, nor iu the 
quality of this juice as indicated by either the relative specific gravities or the total 
amount of solid matter present in the juices. 

But by reference to the previous tables, giving the results in detail, the fact will 
appear in the case of each of the sorghums examined that, during the early stages of 
development of these plants, the total sugars present iu the juices is comparatively 
low, often not one-third of the maximum afterwards found in the plant, and conse- 
quently the amount of sirup possible to be made from this immature cane is propor- 
tionately less than that w^hich the same stalks would yield when fully matured. 

It will also appear that, during this early and inmiature state of the plant, the rela- 
tive amount of crystallizable sugar (sucrose) as compared with the total sugars i)resent 
is much greater in the lower half of the canes. This condition remains, ai>parently, 
until the seed has reached the milky state, at which time the juices iu both parts of 
the plant appear to be of equal value. But it must not be understood that the maxi- 
mum content of sugar in the x>lant has been reached at this period of development, 
since, as will be seen by the tables, this is far from the fact. 

From this period in the plant's development until the perfect ripening of the seed, 
the juices appear to uniformly increase iu their content of crystallizable sugar, and to 
decrease in their couteut of uncrystallizable sugar. 

Still later in the history of the iilant there appears a slight deterioration in the qual- 
ity of the juice from the lower half of the stalk, and it is found generally to be some- 
Avhat inferior to the juice from the upper half. 

It appears probable that this deterioration of the juice from the lower part of the 
cane marks the incipient stages of death and the ultimate decay of the plant, the roots 
and leaves failing in their office to supply the full amount of nourishment which the 
plant requires. It begins to feed ux)on itself, so to speak, and it is to be observed that 
at this period the oif-shoots from the upper ^j^aints of the stalk begin a vigorous growth 
and appear to live as parasites upon the parent stalk. 

It will appear also that at the first examinations the specific gravity of the juices 
from the lower half of the cane is almost invariably greater than that of the juices 
from the upper halves, and that an equality of specific gravity apjiears to indicate an 
equality between the juices in their content of sugar not oulj^, but in its relative pro- 
portions of sucrose and glucose. 

Proximate analyses have been made of the seed of two varieties of sorghum, the 
early amber and the Chinese, the results of which are given below. It will be seen 
that this seed difiers but little in composition from the other cereals, aud closely 
resembles com, and it will doubtless prove valuable as food for farm stock. 



• 


Sorghum 


seeds. 




!Early 


amber. 


Chinese. 


Moisture 




10.57 
1.81 
4.60 
1.91 
2.64 
7.34 
1.10 

C8.55 
1.48 


9 93 


Ash 


1 47 


Fat 


o <)5 


Sugars 


'' 70 


Albumen, insoluble in alcohol 

Albumen, soluble in alcohol 

Gum 


2.04 
6.90 


Starch, color, &c 


TO 17 




1 52 










100. 00 


100. 00 



Moisture was estimated from loss by drying at 105° C. Ash, by simple ignition ; 
total albuminoids from total nitrogen multiplied by 6.25. Under "sugars'' is given 
that portion of the 80 per cent, alcohol extract which was found soluble in water. 
The insoluble portion of this alcohol extract included a little red coloring matter, but 
otherwise seemed to be identical with the "zein" of maize. Gum was extracted by 



27 

water, after use of ether and alcohol. Fat Avas extracted dirc('My from the saiu]>le by 
absolute ether ; it was 'yt'Howish, semi-solid, and very much resembled the fat simi- 
larly extracted from corn. Starch, color, &c., were determined by difference. la 
early amber there was found 64.0.^) per cent., and in Chinese sorghum (54.74 per cent, 
of starch by titration, with Fehliug's solution of an acid extract made after extractiou 
with ether, alcohol, and water. 

Crude liber is that portion, ash free, Avhich still remains insoluble after treatment 
of the sample with ether, alcohol, water, dilute hydrochloric acid, and dilute potassie 
hydrate. It is usuallj^ Avhite or slightly gray, and free from nitrogen. 

Proximate analyses have also been made of the scum and sediment obtained in defe- 
cating the juice, with a view of throwing light upon the chemical character of this 
important process. 

The results of these analyses are given below. 



Liberian 
lime pre- 
cipitate. 



Moisture 

Ash 

Chlorophyll and wax 

Sngars 

Kesins '>jid trace albumen . . . 

Gum 

Albuminoids 

Humus-like substances, diff . 

Crude fiber 

Starch isomers 



9.77 
21.69 
17.60 
10.80 
-3.61 

6.02 
22.58 
- 5. 73 

2.20 
Trace. 



100. 00 



Honduras 
lime pre- 
cipitate. 



7.69 
7.00 
8.95 

43.96 
3.26 

11.40 
4.55 

12. 71 

.48 

Trace. 



100. 00 



Honduras 
skimmings. 



5.72 
14.39 
14.44 

15. oe 

5.08 
11.10 
8.05 
5.58 
5.4S^ 
15.18 



100.00 



The large amount of ash in Liberian lime precipitate and Honduras skimmings is 
due to the isreseuce of considerable clay, which had been used to hasten the clarifica- 
tion of the juice. There was little or no clay present in Hoiuluras lime precipitate. 
The claying seems mechanically to have carried down a large proportion of the alba- 
men in the Liberian lime precipitate. 

The very great difference in these waste products is probably due almost wholly to 
differences in the manipulation of the juices. 

Very probably there exists in lim^ precipitates a combined organic acid ; this will be 
investigated in the future. 

Whoever may detect error ui the methods employed, or in the results .stated, will 
confer a favor by mentioning the same. 

It is certainly most desirable that these experiments be continued upon a larger 
scale, and Avith at lea.st a dozen Aarieties of sorghum and an equal number of A^arie- 
ties of sweet, yellow, and Avhite com. 

At least an aci'e of each A^ariety should be grown, and the dcAelopment of each 
should be watched through the season, and Avhen the proper time for Avorking up the 
crop has come, let the acre be worked up for sugar. Such an experiment Avould require 
little outlay and be productive of invaluable results. It would require at least three or 
four assistants additional iji the chemical laboratory to attend to the continued analy- 
ses of the canes, and would necessitate a somewhat larger api)aratus for AVorking up 
the crop. 

The corresjiondence addressed to this diA-ision upon this subject of sugar has steadily 
increased until it requires nearly all the time of one assistant to attend to it. 

V 

THE PERMAXGAN.\TE PROCESS FOR THE ESTIMATION OF SUGARS IN JUICES. 



1. Preparation of the juice. 

Usually two stalks were selected for analysis. Their maturitv, as shown by the 
development of blossoms, seeds, and the color and condition of the glumes, was re- 
corded. Then were noted — 

a. The Aveight of the unstripped stalks. 

h. The weight of the stripped and topped stalks, and, by difference, the weight of 
leaves and tops. 

c. The aA'erage leng-th and diameter of the stripped stalks. 

These stripped stalks Avere then divided so that tops and butts were of equal weight. 
Then was found — 

d. The average length each of tops and butts. The tops and butts Avere then sepa- 
rately analyzed. Each \yj itself was cut finely with a hatchet, and then bruised in 
an iron mortar. The bruised mass Avas then placed in a small bag, and submitted to 
a heavy pressure in an ordinary iron press. * 



28 

The expressed juiee was collected and weighed, aud the percentage calculated to 
the imstripped stalks taken. 

The juice thus obtained usually was greenish from the presence of chlorophyll. As 
the plant matured, the color of the juice inclined to amber, and in perfectly ripe stalks 
(especially of the Early Amber variety) the color was red, from the presence, in the 
central portion of the stalk, of a red coloring matter sparingly soluble in ether, readily 
dissolved bj"- 80 per cent, alcohol. 

The specific gravity of the juice was determined usually by a x^ikuometer. It was 
fouml that the readings given by an accurate hydrometer accorded well with the 
.specific gravity indicated by weight, if the juice was iireviously allowed to stand for 
about half an hour, to allow included air to escape. 

A weighed portion of the juice was dried, at a heat not exceeding lOO^^ C, until two 
successive weights showed but little variation ; the percentage of residue thus found 
was stated as total solids in juice. These figures can be regarded only as fair ai>proxi- 
matious, for chemists are well aware of the difficulties attending the perfect desicca- 
tion of saccharine juices. In this connection, however, the results are valua,ble as 
checks upon the sugar determinations. 

For determination of sugars in the juice" 100 c. c. were taken, aud made in every case 
to 125 c. c. by addition of solution of subacetate of lead and water. Among other sub- 
stances precipitated by tiie treatment were cbloroiihyll, albumenoid matter, gum, and 
lead salts of the inorganic acids of the ash. 

The li(xid was filtered perfectly clear through dry papei-, aud was sometimes colorless 
and sometimes amber. Every 10 c. c. of this li(iuid repieseuted 6 c. c. of the original 
juice. 

For the determination of inverted sugar, 10 c. c. of this filtered li(iuor were taken, 
and for sucrose ^ c. c. 

The portion for glucose was treated with considerable excess of Fehliug's solution, 
and carefully heated on the w^ater-bath, a thermometer being inserted in the liquid, 
which was not allowed to rise above 75° C. At tliis temperature perfectly pure sucrose 
does not reduce Febliug's solution in the least. 

The iiortion for sucrose was inverted by boiling half an hour with sliglit excess of 
dilute hydrochloric acid. The inverted sugar thus formed was then treated with large 
excess of Fehliug's solution, exactlj"- as above described, except that it was not neces- 
sary to keep the temperature lower than the heat of the water-bath (100^ C. ). 

The precipitated red suboxide of copper was then thoroughly washed with hot 
water by decantatiou aud filtration (without aspiration usually) through fine paper. 
It was then dissolved in an acid (sulphuric) solution of ferric sulphate, aud the amount 
of ferrous salt determined b}^ titration with potassium permanganate. 

This method for determining glucose depends upon the following facts : 

1. That two molecules (360 parts by weight) of glucose (Cg Hin O,;) will reduce from 
Fehliug's solution five molecules of cuprous oxide"(5 Cuj O). 

2. That the five molecules of cuprous oxide thus precipitated will reduce in acid 
sol. five molecules of ferric sulphate (Fcn (S O4) 3) to form ten molecules (1,.520 parts 
by weight) of ferrous sulphate (Fe. S 0^) as is explained by the following equation: 

5 Cu3 O ? , 5 5 Fe. (S 04)3 ? , <i 5 H, S O4 ? _ 5 10 Cu & O^ } , 
715 parts 5 "<" \ 2,000 parts 5 "i" ^ 490 parts 5 ^ } 1,595 parts ^ '^ 
{ 10 Fe S O4 ? , <i 5 H, O I 
n,520 parts 5 "^ ^ 90 parts <, 

The ten molecules of ferrous sulphate thus formed will decolorize one molecule 
(316.2 parts by weight) of j)ota&sium permanganate (K3 Muj Os), thus: 

S 10 Fe 8 O4 ),<; K3 Mn2 Og ^ , .< 8 H, S O4 ? ^ 5 Fe. (S ©4)3 ? , 5 2 Mn S O4 ? , 

) 1,520 parts S "^ > 316.2 parts ^ "^ ^ 784 parts ^ ~ { 2,000 parts ^ "*" \ 302 parts S "^ 

S K0SO4 > , { 8H.2O ^ 



+! 



\ 174.2 parts ^'^\lU parts i 

By following this explanation, it appears that two molecules of glucose are exactly 
represented by one molecule of potassium permanganate, as will ajqiear from the fol- 
lowing, by omitting the second aud third members of the series. Thus: 

j 2 Co Hi, Oo \_<, 5 Cu.2 O ^_<i 10 Fe S O4 ? 5 K2 Mu, 0,s ? 
\ 360 parts 5 — ^ 715 parts ^ ~ ) 1,520 parts 5 ~ \ 316.2 parts 5 

In other words, 316.2 parts by Aveight of potassium iiermangauate are equivalent to 
360 parts of glucose, or one i)art of permanganate corresponds to 1.1385 i^arts of 
glucose. If, then, the amount of permanganate decolorized be multiplied by 1.1385 it 
will correctly represent the amount of glucose present. So much for the theoretical 
explan.ation. In practice it is found that each chemist must determine for himself his 
titration e^or by estimations made upon sugar of known luirity. 



29 

This individual error is due to tlio difficulty in detevmiuinp; the exact end reaction; 
experience has sliowu, in the course of this work, tliat the point where the color of the 
permanganate barely appears in the rapidly agitated liquid is nearly identical with 
the true end reaction. Some operators carry the titration a little further until a faint 
rose tint is permanent for about two seconds. Each man who has done this work has 
carefully determined his titration error, and all tigures subuutted have been corrected 
therefor. The iron solution works best if very strongly acidulated with sulphuric 
acid. The most convenient strength for the permanganate solution is 4.392 grains to 
the liter, equal to .005 grams glucose for each cubic centimeter. 

In the earlier part of these determinations it was not considered necessary to thor- 
oughly wash the precipitated suboxide of copper before dissolving it in the ferric 
sulphate solution. Carefully performed experiments, however, showed that washing- 
was best, and that the results obtained on unwashed suboxide would equal those on 
the washed if multiplied by .9676 for glucose and by .9438 for sucrose. 

As the results of nuich careful work it appears that, if the suboxide be well washed, 
and if each operator determines his titration error, the determination of glucose by 
this method is very accurate. 

The amount of glucose found was divided by the weight of 8 c. c. of the juice ana- 
lyzed for percentage of glucose. The sucrose was found by subtracting from the total 
glucose after invei-sion the amount originally present in 4 c. c. of the n^ice, and mul- 
tiplying the remaining glucosi; by .9.5. The percentage Avas then calculated in the 
usual way. 

Respectfully, 

PETER COLLIER, 
Chemist, Agricultwal Department. 

MACHINERY. 

Eeplying to your inquiry relative to the differeut kinds of machinery 
for making- sugar from sorghum, I ^TOuhl remark that the juices of the 
various kinds of sorghum examined by the department (aiid the same 
is true without doubt of all varieties of sorghum) are so nearly similar 
to the juice of the tropical sugar-cane {Saccharum officinarum) that the 
same machinery and the same processes will undoubtedly be as useful 
in the manipulation of the one as of the other. 

Heretofore sorghum has been grown for the purpose of making sirup 
in almost every part of the country where corn would grow ; and in this 
manufacture a certain class of machinerj', known as sorgo-machinery, 
has become general. This machinery is simple and strong in structure, 
and as now made consists ordinarily of three rollers, which are either 
vertical or horizontal, and are driven by horse, steam, or other power. 
Having a capacity for work in proportion to the i^ower employed and 
the size of the mill, and varying but little in construction, it is manu- 
factured in all parts of the United States and can be obtained at low 
rates at almost any large machine-shop. 

The cuts here presented in illustration of the leading classes of sugar- 
making machinery have been kindly furnished by two or three houses 
largely engaged in the manufacture,- but machinery of like character 
is made in almost every county in tlie United States in which there is a 
large iron-vrorking establishment. Whatever ditierence of opinion may 
exist relative to the comparative eflficieocy of the several mills and 
pans on the market must be decided by the individuals who wish to pur- 
chase. They will not and need not necessarily^ be confined to any special 
kind, as there are many desirable sorts for sale throughout the country. 
By way of comparison the illustrations embrace some that represent the 
primitive methods of sugar-making among the Hindoos and other 
nations. 

The cost of a small outfit necessary to work up the product of the 
ten to fifty acres of sorghum that one or two farmers might raise in a 
neighborhood, would be fi'om $150 to $500, while mills required in 
larger operations would, of course, necessitate a pro])ortional increase in 



30 

xixpeuditure. The plant or apparatus commonly emi)loyed at this time 
in the manufacture of sorghum syrup consists of a small three-roller 
mill, for expressing- the juice; one or more tanks for receiving it and 
heating it to a point where lime or other defecating agents may be used 
{if it be thought necessary to use them at all), and a shallow pan or 
TWO for evaporation. However, much fuller information on this subject 
than I can now give will be found in the proceedings of the convention 
of the ]N"orthwestern Sugar Growers' Association, before referred to. 

In the practical manufacture of sugar, in a large way, from sorghum 
and corn-stalks, it will be found necessary, I have no doubt, to estab- 
lish large central factories or mills, having the same relations to this in- 
dustry as do the grist-mills of a neighborhood, to-day, to wheat and corn. 
Mills of this character should be capable of handling at least 500 acres 
of sorghum or corn during one season, and I am informed by manufact- 
urers of machinery who have considered the subject with care that 
such mills may be built for a sum not exceeding $12,500, and that pos- 
sibly this amount would also alfbrd a margin for a fiiir working capital 
for the operations of a single season. This central factory would be able 
to work up not only the cane from 500 acres during a season, but also to 
rework into sugar the product of the small mills established at greater or 
less distances around it that had carried their operations no farther than 
the manufacture of concentrated sirup, weighing, say, ten pounds to the 
gallon. 

Prol)ably it will be more profitable to the average farmer to simply 
convert the juice of his stalks into a sirup and sell it as such to a mill 
prepared for making sugar in a large way, with vacuum-pans and 
centrifugals, than it would be to work his cane into sugar himself. For 
although good sugar has been made during the past season by open-pan 
evaporation by small farmers in many parts of the country, and made 
at a itrofit, yet the time must come when the comjietition in the manu- 
facture of sugar will be so great as to reduce the profits materially, and 
to demand the closest economy in all the various i)rocesses of cultivation 
and subsequent manipulation. Until, however, the supply shall begin 
to equal our home demand there will probably be a very fair profit to 
the average farmer with his small mill and open-pan evaporation in 
making sugar, molasses, and vinegar; for vinegar is one of the products 
«f this industry which is of importance, the skimmings and other refuse 
making an excellent article that finds ready sale at remunerative prices. 

The entire cost from the first breaking up of the land, and carefully 
«onnting every expenditure at the current cash prices of the country for 
labor and other things, the entire cost of production in the Western States, 
the past season, of a gallon of dense sirup, weighing say 13 pounds, did 
not exceed 1G| cents on an average. (It is quite possible to produce it 
at less cost.) These 13 pounds of sirup, if properly managed, should 
give from 6 or 8 pounds of sugar; and, if handled by the centrifugal, 
the sugar can be separated from the sirup at a fraction of one cent, per 
pound. 

I am informed by Mr. Thoms, an experienced sugar boiler, employed 
last season at the Crystal Lake Sugar Works, Illinois, at which were 
made many thousand pounds of good sugar, that with trimmed cane 
delivered at the mill door, he can make and deliver the sugar at the 
mil] for 11 cents per pound, a statement corroborated by Mr. Russell, 
®f Janesville, AVis., late superintendent of the Crystal Lake Factory 
during the season of 1879. 

The trimmed stalks can be bought for from $2 to $1 per ton de- 
livered at the mill; and the farmer can verv well afford to deliver them 



31 

for this price, as he cau raise from 15 to 30 tons per acre, and obtain 
besides a crop of seed equal in value to a fair crop of oats from the 
same number of acres, to say nothing of the large supply of excellent 
blade fodder. If we assume 20 tons of stalks per acre (and it is not too 
high an estimate for good laud), the yield per acre would be from $60 
to $S0 delivered ; and if the haul was not too long, this would be ex- 
ceedingly profitable to the grower. If the haul should be so long as to 
preclude a profit, then it would be necessary for the farmer to have n 
small mill to reduce the juice to a dense sirup, as has been described, 
and to market it at the large factory in that condition. 

Although a fair measure of success* has rewarded the efforts of 
many who were engaged, the past season, in the manufacture of sugar 
from sorghum, yet to obtain sugar uniformly and profitably from the 
juice of the various sugar-producing plants, under diifering condi- 
tions of soil and seasons, exi^erience is requisite as well as theoretic 
knowledge. 

Instruction in this matter is of the utmost importance, and hence it 
is desirable that the Department of Agriculture should be authorized 

* The following table is au epitome of the reports received l)y the department from 
those to whom the seed of the Early Amber cane was sent. Many of those reporting 
■were entirely unaccustomed to the cultivation of this crop, and consequently were only 
partially successful. Others had the experience of some years to aid them, and from 
these the reports, are uniformly favorable, and some remarkably favorable. A yield 
of at least 200 gallons of dense sirup per acre (worth 40 cents to 50 cents per gallon) 
it would seem reasonable to expect as the result of good seasons, good soil, good cul- 
tivation, and good milling. 



State. 


Average number 
gallons per acre. 


i 

<s 

to 


<6 

Is 

s.s 


Price per pound. 


as 
ft 

S 
© . 

^§ 



P, 




Alabama 


122 


$Q 50 
48 
90 
50 




192 

256 
124 
200 


69 




117 





52 




' 116 






109 




196 


1 




192 


Delaware 


; 25 




Dakota Territory 

Plorida 


1 112 

1 145 

104 


66 
30 

48 
46 
40 
75 
52 
49 
39 
60 
51 
56 
49 
40 
55 

""75" 
57 

48 
50 
50 
41 
57 
62 
55 
51 
54 






168 
240 
192 
325 
400 
200 
350 
300 
244 
150 
480 
376 
500 
300 
300 
200 
214 
176 
453 
176 
136 
392 
361 
150 
180 
216 
260 


59 




5* 






42 




132 


8 1.40 in 


49 




127 


3 




''5 


Indian TeiTitorv 


127 


82 


Iowa 


130 


16 

7 

2 

...... 

5 




69 


Kansas 


114 


25 


Kentucky 


1 119 

Ill 


31 
40 


Michigan 


... j 166 


75 




1 138 


43 


Mi.ssissippi 


! Ill 


32 


Mi.ssouri 


' 135 


30 
3 
2 




48 


iN'^ebraska 


. . . i 1 124 


59 




1 147 


90 


New Y<trk 


175 


2 
3 




136 


North Carolina 


163 


40 


Ohio 


151 


9 




50 


Pennsylvania 


138 


100 


South Carolina 


i 94 






25 


Tennessee 


' 138 


3 
11 
1 
3 
8 
17 


"ii' 


40 


Texa,s 


114 


30 


Utah Tcrritorv 


i 117 


9S 


Virginia '. 


113 


50 


West Virginia 


127 


60 


Wi.sconKin 


149 


69 










.,-_ii. 


' 128 

1 


50 


1 10.5 


500 


25 



32 

and empowered to make such cxperimeiits (at various ceutral points, 
easily reached by those who are interested) as will practically instruct 
the people in alf the various processes and machinery heretofore suc- 
cessfully used, and to discover, if possible, other and better methods of 
speedily obtaining- the object in view, viz., the production of our own 
sugar and the consequent saving of the large sum annually paid for for- 
eign sugar. The passage of Senate bill Xo. 1514 (referred to me) would 
enable the Department to institute important experiments in at least 
three localities that would go far to determine in a scientitic manner the 
questions in the way of a speedy solution of the i>roblem. 

CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION. 

Of your several inquiries there remains to be considered only the ques- 
tion of statistics relative to the consumption and i^roductiou of sugar in 
the United States. 

Perhaps I cannot make better reply to this inquiry than has already 
been made in my annual report for 1S78. In that report the consunvp- 
fion from 1866 to 1878 inclusive for the entire country is given as follows : 

Pounds. Pouutls. 

1866 1,012,799,904 | 18?:5 . 1.525,974,^71 

1867 870,.526,017 I 1874 1.705,19:5,954 

1868 1,195,120,41:? I 1875 ■.. 1.859,159,674 

1869 I,:i09,847,125 I 187G 1,604,947,164 

1870 1,306,202,065 I 1877 1,7:31.57:^.553 

1871 1,327, 456, :300 \ 1878 1,991.744.160 

IS72 1,565,760,616 | 

For the same years t^o, production of cane sugar in the United States 
was as follows : 

Pounds. j . Pounds. 

1866 47,150,000 1873 102,922,700 



1867 43,294,050 

1868 96,894,400 

1869 100, 153, 500 

1870 "... 166,613,1.50 

1871 147,730,150 



1874 134,504,691 

1875 163,418,070 

1876 190,672,570 

1877 147, 101, 941 

1878 2.57, 094, 160 



1872 124,798,000 | 1879 210,670,000 

In addition to this amount of sugar from cane there were produced, 
from 1866 to 1877 inclusive, 459,031,151 pounds of maple sugar. 

The consumption of sugar for the year 1879 was within a small frac- 
tion of 40 pounds per capita of our population, being an increase of 
nearly 10 pounds per capita since the decade of 1860-70 and of 15 pounds 
since the decade 1850-'60. 

From these and other tables in our possession, it is found that over 
and above the amount of all sugars produced in the United States since 
1849 we have consumed during the same period not less than eighteen 
hundred and odd millions of dollars' worth of foreign sugars and their 
allied products, or an amount of sugar more than equal in Aalue to all 
the precious metals mined in the country since the disco\'ery of gold in 
California, and nearly equal to the public debt at the present time. Es- 
timating the population of the United States at 50,000,000, and multi- 
plying this number by the pounds (40) per capita consumed in 1879, we 
have for the consumption of that year a total of 2,000,000,000 jjounds. 
Of this amount 1,74:3,560,000 pounds, or more than 80 per cent., besides 
38,395,575 gallons of molasses (the whole valued at $75,017,145, or, duty 
added, $114,516,745), were imported. To bring the vast amount ot 



33 

sugar imported into tlie countiy within more easy comprelieiisiou, we 
have only to imagine five vessels of nearly 500 tons each and loaded 
with sugar arriving daily at our ports each day in the year. To convey 
the whole amount consumed would require five trains of twenty cars 
each starting daily for one thousand days. 

I have the honor to be, very respectfully, 

WM. G. LE DUG, 

Commissioner. 



ILLUSTRATIONS OF SUGAR PLANTS. 

Of tlie followiug plates the first four represent varieties of sugar-caue growu, duriug 
the past season, on tlie gronuds of the Department of Agriculture at Washington and 
used in the experiments of the Chemical Division, as detailed in Professor Collier's 
accompanying report. The drawings were made by a gentleman employed in the 
departinent. The designations given them are somewhat different from those current 
in some parts of the country, but are conformed to what are believed to be the most 
authoritative standards. 

Plate I represents the Early Amber sugar-cane, the favorite variety with planters in 
Minnesota and the Northwest. What is now called the Minnesota Early Amber cane 
is claimed as an improvement upon the Early Amber varieties growing formerly in 
differeut parts of Minnesota, by Hon. Seth M. Kenny and Mr. C. F. Miller, of that 
State. Acting on the theory tliat cane in a high latitude will degenerate if grown 
continuously from its own seed, these gentlemen selected the finest specimens of seed 
from their own crops and sent them to a southern latitude to )je grown. The seed 
product of this'sonthern growth was returned to Minnesota. By this alternation of 
seed, and by other intelligent processes of culture, they have succeeded in establishing 
a new and permanent variety, which they claim to be more productive in weight of 
cane and to contain a higher per cent, of saccharine matter than any other grown in 
that State. This claim needs to be substantiated by more careful and extended ob- 
servations before it can be said to be fully established. 

Messrs. Kenny and Miller describe the Early Amber cane as presenting "the char- 
acteristics of both sorgo and imphee." By sorgo they mean the Chinese sorgo (Plate 
II), and by imphee, the White Liberian (Plate III), ami its kindred African varieties. 
The Early Amber receives its name from its early ripening and from the bright amber 
color wliich characterizes its sirup when properly made. It is very rich in saccharine 
matter. When scientifically treated its products are destitute of that peculiar 
" sorghum" taste formerly complained of; the flavor is very similar to that of pure 
honey. The sirup readily granulates and yields sugar equal to the best ribbon cane 
of Louisiana. 

The Early Amber cane on the department grounds did not grow quite so tall as the 
White Liberian. Its seed-heads were of moderate fullness and of very dark color. 

Plate II shows the Chinese sorgo cane grown on the department grounds. Its 
height is about that of the Early Amber. Its seed-heads are fuller and more compact 
and somewhat resemble a head of sumac; hence the synonym " sumac cane." It is 
also known as " Chinese cane." 

Plate III represents the White Liberian cane grown on the department grounds. 
This variety is rather taller than the Early Amber. The stalk curves at the top, leav- 
ing the liead pendent ; hence the synonym " Gooseneck." It is also styled a variety 
of" the White Imphee. The seed-heads are shorter, more compact, and of lighter color 
than the Early Amber. • 

Plate LV shows the Honduras cane grown on the department grounds. It grows 
about one-half taller than either of the above varieties. Its seed-top is of reddish 
brown and spreading ; hence its synonym " Sprangle Top." It is also called " Masto- 
don " and •' Honey cane." 



B. 

MINNESOTA CANE GROWERS' CONVENTION. 

A numerous and intelligent convention of the Early Amber cane growers and manu- 
factirrers of Minnesota was held at Minneapolis, January "i^, 1880. The Commissioner 
had The pleasure of attending this convention and secured a phonographic report of its 
proceedings. As it embraced men of scientific attainuients and of specific acquaint- 

o AG 



34 

ance with this new branch of productive industry, the discussions were remarkable 
for the vast number of facts and principles already accumulated in their experience. 
Of these it is proposed to furnish, here, an abstract showing the drift of opinion upon 
all the points of culture and manufacture. 



There were some differences in the opinions expressed as to the availability of new 
land and, as usual in such cases, experiences varied. Some having expressed the fear 
that new land Avill impart a strong flavor to the cane-sirup, Mr. Wiley, who had large 
experience in both culture and manufacture, emphaticallj" denied the fact. He said 
that while old laud might produce a sirup of brighter color it was not at all better in 
taste. An advantage in nsiug new timber land is found in the small amount of cul- 
tivation required. Costly culture on old laud will not pay in opposition to cheap 
culture on new land. Mr. Wiley had paid as high as $1.5 per acre for hoeing. New 
land is comparatively free from foul seed and consequently less liable to a troublesome 
growth of weeds. 

On the other hand Colonel Coleman, of the Saint Louis Rural World, and others 
contended that old land required less cultivation and produced better results. It 
was suggested that if it were necessary to clear old land of weeds or to fertilize it 
with barn-yard manure, a crop of corn should be grown upon it before planting the 
cane. The general opinion was in favor of a sandy upland soil, well drained, but not 
freshly manured. 

In regard to manuring, facts were alleged to show that it spoiled the flavor of the 
sirup. A farmer had selected for his cane patch an old cow-yard. The stalks were 
tall and luxuriant, but the siruji would nearly "take ott' the skin of the mouth." 

The great majority of opinion was in favor of the indefinite repetition of this crop 
on the same soil. The president of the convention mentioned the case of a neighbor 
who had cultivated the same ground most successfully for seven years without 
deterioration, his product ranging from 2.50 to 3U0 gallons of sirup per acre. Mr. Day 
and Mr. Dyer, of Hastings, corroborated this opinion from their own experience. The 
latter thought that his continued crops improved not only in quantity but also in 
quality. 

The soil required for the cane is not necessarily very rich. A gentleman planted 
several knolls, too poor for wheat, in cane, and realized 200 gallons per acre of excel- 
lent sirup. 

PREPAKATION OF THE GROUND. 

The general opinion was in favor of fall plowing. Mr. Farmer plows in August 
putting the plow to the beam. This caused all foul seed and especially ])igeon grass 
to germinate in the fall and to be killed by winter freezing. Another advantage of 
fall plowing was that the crop was less liable to injury from droughts in the early 
season. Mr. Bozarth, of Iowa, after twenty-one years' experience in raising cane was 
decidedly in favor of fall plowing. In one case a portion of his cane patch, replowed 
in spring, yielded but half as much sirup as that which had been only fall plowed. 
On the other hand, Mr. E. A. Chapman, of Windham, had "demonstrated that a very 
large crop of cane can be raised the first year on the open prairie, and at the first 
breakage." He had "broken 2 acres with the La Dow harrow, harrowing it com- 
pletely, and it produced the best cane out of 5 acres." It was planted June 1, on 
black, loam soil. He believes that with the La Dow harrow "large crops can be 
raised on new breakings." "It did the work so well that several farmers got down 
on their knees to look at the soil ; it looked so much like old soil." Those who practiced 
fall plowing were careful to stir the ground in the spring in order to destroy the weeds. 
Mr. Farmer, when the ground becomes sufficiently warm in the spring, goes over it 
with the Beaver Dam seeder and then with the drag and roller. This treatment ef- 
fectually disposes of the grass, which point was generally considered of first impor- 
tance. ^ 

TIME OF PLANTING. 

There was soane discussion on this point. The drift of opinion was expressed by the 
following resolution : 

"Besolved, That the cane be planted as early as it is possible to work the ground 
properly, avoiding late frosts." 

The ground should be well warmed before the seed is placed in it. In Minnesota 
the avei-age seeding time is in the fore part of May, though several growers had been 
successful with plantings still earlier. The president of the conventiou thought that 
planting should not be quite so early on ground impregnated with grass seed. Mr. 
Wiley advised against planting till the season was warm enough to germinate the 
seed quickly. He had had later plantings which produced better than some earlier 
ones. A late spring frost might cut down early plantings and before they grew again 
the pigeon grass was apt to start up profusely. Mr. Wood had seen a 'field of cane 



35 

some 8 or 10 iuches liiglier than a uoigliboring field. He found that in the former case 
the seed had lain in the ground all winter and the latter had been planted early in 
spring. Experience and discretion were considered requisite to settle for each locality 
the exact time of planting as they are in all other cultures. 

VARIETIES OF SORGHUM. 

In a more southern latitude the cane grower may have considerable range of choice 
between ditferent varieties, but for a locality so far north as Minnesota, the Early Am- 
ber, ripening within the productive season, is the only one that can be relied upon. 
The Commissioner of Agriculture, General Le Due, by request, gave some very inter- 
esting facts in regard to the experiments with different sugar plants under the direc- 
tion of the chemist of the department. The Early Amber cane was tested July 18, when 
the .seed-head was just out, and showed 3.77 per cent, of glucose and 4.43 per cent, of 
sucrose. It was again tested August 16, 29 days afterwards, and found to contain but 
1.54 per cent, of glucose, while the sucrose had risen to 14.67 per cent. Here was indi- 
cated a most important chemical change, in which not only the sucrose was enlarged, 
but over half of the grape sugar or glucose changed to cane sugar or sucrose. A third 
examination, September 16, 31 days afterwards, when the seed was ripe, hard, and 
dry. showed a still further enlargement of the sucrose to 15.95 per cent., and a still 
further absorption of the glucose, of which 0.65 j>er cent, was detected by analysis. 
Another examination, not long afterwards and'just following a severe frost, showetl 
little or no change, the sucrose had increased to 17 percent, and the glucose to 1.00. 
These experimental results place the Early Amber almost on a par with the best 
Louisiana cane. 

The departmental experiments included several other varieties of sorghum and other 
sugar plants. The Chinese cane was examined at the same times that the Early Am- 
ber, and gave the following results. When the seed-head was just out, there was 5.55 
per cent, of glucose and but 1.85 per cent, of sucrose ; when the seed was hard and 
dry, there were developed 1.85 per cent, of glucose and 13.90 of su.crose ; after the frost, 
the glucose had enlarged to 1.85 and the sticrose had declined to 13.10. The White 
Liberian cane showed its maximum of sucrose 15.20 per cent., and its minimum of glu- 
cose 0.95 per cent., when its seeds were dry. The Honduras, before the seed-head was 
out, gave 5.13 per cent, of glucose and 1.20 per cent, of sucrose; when the seed was 
hardening, its glucose had fallen to 1.30 per cent, and its sucrose had risen to 15.10. 

The Louisiana cane of 1879 gave a maximum of but 12.47 per cent, of sucrose ; the 
growth of 1878 gave 16 per cent. The fact seems sufficiently evident that the sorghum 
as a sugar plant contains an amount of crystallizable sugar fully equal to the Loui- 
siana cane. 

SEED. 

It was suggested that by steei)iug the seed in warm water for 24 to 48 hours it would 
become sprouted, and hence would grow more rapidly. But, on the other hand, it 
was lu-ged that a dry season would kill the sprouted seed and the crop would be a fail- 
ure. Nature porvides the most opportune moistening. 

The weight of opinion was decidedly in favor of seed brought from the latitude of 
Saint Louis. Some cane-growers had sent their seed to Missouri and Kansas to have 
a crop grown and its seed returned. Among the decisive facts reported, Mr. Miller 
stated that his seed imported from Southern Indiana 11 years before had produced on its 
first sowing stalks from 12 to 15 feet high ; but by planting the seeds of each crop its suc- 
cessor showed a declining height of cane until it grew but 7 or 8 feet high. Mr. Wylie 
had averaged, with seed brought from the South, 273 gallons per acre ; the following 
y^ar, using his own seed, he obtained but 223 gallons, a falling off of 50 gallons. The 
president of the convention had found, as a general thing, that the deterioration of 
seed was not very marked till the third year. The Southern seed did not excel so 
much in an earlier ripening of the crop as in its increased product, the excess, in some 
cases, amounting to one-third. The sentiment of the convention was expressed in the 
following resolution: 

" JResolvcd, That Early Amber cane-seed, grown in the latitude of Saint Louis, is the 
best seed for Minnesota for two years." 

The seed has a value of its own for consumption on the farm. It was pronounced 
excellent for feeding hogs, sheep, or poultry. The 5 or 6 tufts growing upon a hill of 
cane were estimated as equal in feeding value to three average ears of corn. A mem- 
ber of the convention pi'onouuced it equal to oats. Another liad found that the seed 
fed to sheep made the lleeoe look lively and iJolished. 

PLANTING. 

Plant just deep enough to secure moisture. Hence, earlier plantings should be shal' 
lower than late ones. There was some difference of opinion as to the arrangement of 
the hills. The president of the convention, Mr. Kenny, plants in rows 3^ feet each. 



36 

way and uses 2 pounds of seed per acre or 6 or 7 seed to the hill ; at the second hoeing 
he thins them out. Mr. Day marks the rows 3 feet each way. Seed should be planted 
not down in the trough of the marking furrow Avhere a heavy rain is apt to wash it 
away, but on the edge. Mr. Wiley plants from 15 to IS inches one way and 3 feet the 
other way, the rows running north and south, thus doubling the number of hills planted 
by Mr. Day. A tract of 4 acres sown broadcast was repor'ted as producing at the rate 
of 450 gallons per acre. 

Mr. Miller practiced stepping upon the seed as they were placed in the ground. 
Several planters present sanctioned this practice, urging that the close pi-essure of the 
soil around the seed enables it to germinate more rapidly. It was objected that step- 
ping the seed caused the ground to bake, but it was replied that this was tiie case 
only with wet clay ground. 

CULTIVATION OF THE CROP. 

The leading point presented in the culture of cane is keeping it clear of weeds. This 
requires prompt action with the hoe, drag, and cultivator. A grain farmer suggested 
the use of Thomas's harrow, of 90 steel teeth, but the general sentiment was that the 
cane-plants were too tender for any such treatment. It should be thoroughly hoed 
until large enough to cultivate witlx the jjIow or cultivator. 

TIME TO CUT THE CANE. 

Mr. Whiting had found the best results from early cuttings, but admitted tluit iu 
the later cuttings it was the extreme hot weather that had changed tlie sucrose to glu- 
cose. The president thought the proper time was when .the seed is in the stiff dough, 
or from August 28 to September 1. It seems to improve for a few days, hut afterwards 
it begins to decline in saccharine matter. The earlier the cutting after the see<l has 
reached the dough stage the larger the product and the brighter and cleaner the sirup. 
The question of suckering was considerably debated, and facts both 2)ro and con were 
alleged, but the conveiuion expressed no collective opinion. 

HARVESTING. 

The question of strip])ing the leaves elicited considerable discussion. On the one 
hand It Avas urged that if the leaves were put through the mill with the stalk they 
would absorb a large portion of the juice. It was replied that this would not be the 
case with mills of sufficient power. Force enough should be applied to express the 
whole of the juice. 

It was complained that cane-growers lost a great deal by purchasing cheap and poor 
machinery. One gentleman estimated the cost of stripping the leaves before cutting 
at $15 per acre. Some advocates of stripping were disposed to admit that it would not 
pay unless labor were plenty and cheap. The Commissioner of Agriculture stated that 
the department expei'iments showed little or no difference lietween stripped and un- 
stripped cane, although the department mill was an indifferent one. Several urged 
that if the leaves Avere dry they would not in any way affect the quality of the sirup. 
The conveution did not express any general opinion upon this point. It was consid- 
ered of first importance that th'^ tops be completely removed, as a single top sent 
through the mill would spoil a large amount of sirup. 

The cane should be cut, some say, 6 of 8 inches from the ground, and others, at 
the first joint. The toj) should also be cut off' from 18 inches to 2 feet; there is no 
sweetness in either the tojjs or the roots. Some planters laid the cane in windrows, 
and others were opposed to the practice as exposing tlie leaves if not the stalks to 
mildew. The storing of cane after cutting started discussion. Some insisted that it 
should be immediately placed under cover to avoid the evaporation of the sun's rays. 
Others piled in ridges 4 feet high, and covered the mass with marsh hay. To this it 
Avas objected that the lack of ventilation would spoil the cane. To obviate this diffi- 
culty some planters were in the habit of laying poles along the piles every 2 feet, iu 
order to admit fresh air. Some would pile it as cane is sometimes piled in the field, 
crossing tlie hills in such a way as to secure ventilation and to shed the rain. Cane 
that had been kept in these different ways for several weeks were reported as having 
produced large and fine sirup products. ' One planter produced juice that ranged from 
7 to 10, from cane that had been stripped and covered Avith leaA^es, while other cane 
of the same lot, that had been ground Avith leaves on, ranged as high as 12. Dr. 
Goesman, of Massachusetts, Avas quoted as saying that there was a gain of 3 per cent, 
by being allowed to lie Avith the leaves on. One planter had found such cane to test 
11, while stripped cane tested only 10. The higher per cent., hoAvever, Avas by many 
attributed to the evaporation of the watery part of the sirup, leaving the saccharine 
matter in larger proportion to tlie residue.' Others had not found the juice to be any 
sweeter after CA'aporation. 



37 

TRANSPOKT OF CANE TO THE MILL. 

Mr. Wiley tliougbt it would i)ay every farmer to have his own laill. The price of 
the sii-ap iji the market ranged from 35 to .50 cents per gallon. The mill owner will 
charge from 15 to 25 cents per gallon ; if to tliis be added a charge, say of 10 cents per 
gallon, for hauling to a distant mill, it is easily seeu that the grower gets but a small 
proportion for his labor. It cost the president $19.14 to haul the cane of 1'2 acres — 
part of it near the mill, and the remainder about a quarter of a mile away. It is bet- 
ter for the farmer to have the profit of manufacturing the cane as well as of raising it. 
In moving the cane from the held there was a strong expression in favor of bundling 
it. Some would decapitate it with a broad-ax, after binding. Some used a common 
dump-cart with an elongated box. The iioints kept in view, both in the transport.a- 
tion and in the storing of the cane, were protection from the weather, and such ven- 
tilation through the mass as would prevent mildew. 

GRINDING. 

The first step in the manufacture of sugar and sirup is the grinding or crushing of 
the cane to express the juice. Mr. Miller saw men at work with a very indifferent 
apparatus, which extracted but a small portion of the juice. On remonstrating with 
them he was told that if you extracted too much of the juice it soured the whole. This 
ignorant prejudice assumes what chemical analysis and intelligent experience has 
exploded — that only a portion of the juice is fit for evaporation. The almost univer- 
sal expression oi the convention was in favor of extracting the last possible portion of 
the juice. For this purpose the most powerful mills were considered as essential to 
the working of the crop. The president, Mr. Kenny, has a mill weighing 4,000 pounds, 
with rollers 16 inches long and 16 inches in diameter ; with a 24-horse power engine 
it expresses 4,000 gallons of juice per day, getting from 65 to 70 per cent, of the juice in 
the stalk. 

Mr. Keating had a small mill, expressing about 75 gallons per day, that worked very 
well, cutting every stalk at the joints and feeding 8 to 15 stalks at a time. Mr. Whit- 
ney says that small mills, like the Victor, if not too much crowded, will crush the cane 
jfferfectly dry. Clark and Utter's mill, manufactured at Dodge Center, with back 
gearing, was reported as a very efficient mechanism ; its cost was |100. The general 
sentiment was that the milling nuxchinery should be sufficiently powerful to obtain 
the largest practicable per cent, of juice in the stalk. It was estimated that Minne- 
sota farmers had lost thousands upou thousands of dollars through the use of poor 
machinery. Mr. Whiting gave a humorous account of his efforts to construct a wooden 
mill, which amounted to nothing. 

In regard to the method of feeding the mill, it was urged that the cane should be 
inserted evenly, and with the butt ends foremost. The supply should be regular and 
up to the normal capacity of the rollers. It is not desirable that it be fall at one time 
and half full at another." There is a considerable art in properly feeding a mill. An 
incompetent feeder will clog it up, from time to time, by an irregular supply. 

TKEATMENT OF THE JUICE. 

After a thorough extraction of the available juice i-n the cane, the next step is its 
evaporation and defecation. Heat is the great agent in the clarification of the juice. 
Hence Mr. Earle claimed that the most important element in the whole process of 
manufacture is a good furnace. He would select a hillside fronting the direction of 
the prevailing winds in September, so as to secure as great draught as possil)le; 
place the furnace on a level lower than the mill, with a fall of at least 10 feet. With 
a furnace in this position, properly constructed, he has had but little difficulty in 
throwing a dame 16 feet higher than any ordinary height of stack, using the bagasse 
as fuel. It can be done also with light wood, but not with heavy wood. The furnace 
must have a ventilating flue. Mr. Wylie had scared his horses at night by the bright 
flames coming out of his stack; The president, Mr. Kenny, suggested it was not just 
the thing to send the heat in flames 15 feet above the stack ; all that can be utilized 
is that which operates under the evaporating pan. Under the instructions of Mr. S wartz 
he had reconstructed his arch so that instead of a great blaze at the top of the stack 
there was an intense heat under the pan. 

Mr. Earle had arranged his pans on different levels so that the Ijack pan was 7 inches 
higher than the other. Mr. Dickenson followed the directions of an expert in the 
construction of his furnace, but could not get the back part of the pan to boil till he 
had torn out the furnace and reconstructed it in accordance with his own ideas. He 
raised his stack from 15 feet to 28 feet and would prefer at least 30 feet. To control 
the draught he put in dampers. He adopted other contrivances for concentrating the 
heat under the pan. As cord- wood was too coarse, he hired a man to split it fine. 
Oak and maple were itfefit, but basswood, poplar, and other light, free-burning kinds. 



38 

will just meet the flemamls. The more rapid <aad intense the heat under the pan, the 
more complete the evaporation and defecation of the juice. Mr. Miller, who had for- 
merly shared Mr. Dickenson's prejudice in favor of light wood, saw a coiinter-demon- 
stration in Mr. Swartz's factory. There heavy red oak and jack-oak sticks were made 
to produce an intense heat by mingling them with coal. Mr. Swartz's arch was 2 feet 
deep and 2i feet wide. It is best not to cramp the arch, but make it wide enough for 
the embers to spread and present a broader heating surface. 

Thei'e were diJierences of opinion in regard to smoke-stacks. The prevailing tend- 
ency to make the pipes too small was noted by several speakers. One member stated 
as a scientihc principle that the cubic contents of the stack or chimney should be at 
least two-thirds of that between the grates and the fire. Mr. Mille"r thought Mr. 
Swartz's chimney a perfect pattern. It was 35 feet high, and from 2 to 3 feet in diam- 
eter. No flame came above the stack at night. The width of his own fire-place is 
about 30 inches, with Avhich he is able to boil as fast as desirable with dry basswood 
and poplar. 

Mr. Swartz does not break the scales oS his pan, but lets them remain till they 
become loose of themselves ; then they would be removed in the daily cleansing of the 
pans. He finds that the Liberian cane deposits a scale entirely different from the 
Early Amber. The sirup of the former does not turn nearly as early as that of the 
latter. Mr. Wylie gets rid of them by burning a forkful of straw under the pan when 
it is perfectly dry and clean. Then under the ouick flame the scales will blister and 
fall ofi:". 

Mr. Wylie for five years had used the "Cook" pans. A neighbor, Mr. Stubbs, had 
made a new one, that is patentable, costing but $35, while Cook's cost $90. It is from 
14 to 16 feet long, and has two partitions in it. It easily makes 100 gallons a day, a 
result requiring hard labor with Cook's pans. One man, with two of Stubbs's pans, 
can easily make 200 gallons a day, and read the newspapers besides. This opinion, 
however, was far from unanimous. A member had used Stubbs's pan for two years, but 
was dissatisfied with its results. It employs the principle used in the Faribault 
refinery in the collection of the skimmings. Mr. "Wylie described the ''Stubbs" pan 
with the aid of a diagram; sides 14 inches high, 36 inches broad on top, 16 feet long. 
It is arranged with a center foundation so that it cannot burn ; the heat is cut oft' with 
a damper. In producing 2,725 gallons of sirnp, Mr Wylie had used 4| cords of woodf 
at !pl.25 per cord. The center arch is within 5 feet of the front of the pan. It is set 
level. Five years ago the Cook pan only was used in Medina, Minn., now not one is 
in use there, while twenty Stubbs pans are used. It is better than the Blymyre pan 
because it skims itself, and there is no clinging of the skim to the sides. 

Mr. Miller had invented an attachment to the Cook pan, which overcomes all the 
difficulties heretofore complained of. Cook's pan, with this attachment, runs the juice 
in and the sirnp out without change. It does not discolor the sirup by reboiling. 
Hence the sirups made in Cook's pans are clearer, and freer from muddiness, than other 
sirups. Mr. Wylie denied that sirups boiled in the Stubbs pan were at all muddy, and 
showed a very fair specimen. The merits of different pans were presented at some 
lengtli by different speakers. 



C. 
ILLUSTEATIONS OF SUGAR MACHINERY. 

The following illustrations of the mechanical processes of sugar-making in different 
parts of the world are not intende^J to advertise the business of the manufacturers who 
have so kindly furnished cuts of their machinery for this report, but to present to 
farmers desiring to engage in sugar-production type specimens of approved methods 
of working up the cane. There are other manufacturers wliose models do not appear 
in this report, who, doubtless, are able to furnish machinery at reasonable j)rices. 
The purpose of these illustrations is to present to sugar-growers some of the facilities 
Avhich the market affords for their enterprise and to put them upon inquiry as to 
where they can obtain the best machinery and at the lowest prices. 

Plate V shows the Victor caue mill, an apparatus in very common use. It is con- 
structed Avith vertical rollers on a plan suited to horse-power, or with horizontal roll- 
ers for water or steam power. The horizontal mills are fitted with extra gearing, are 
necessarily heavier and require greater motive power to accomplish the same result. 
Plate V shows the vertical mill, of which seven sizes are on the market ; the smallest 
is a 1-horse power mill, running 40 gallons of juice per hour, and weighing 395 pounSs, 
at a cost of |48; the largest is a 4-horse power machine, 1,900 pounds weight, running 
170 gallons per hour, and costing .$230. 

Plate VI shows the vertical Victor vaill, with the horse-power operating in a lower 
story. The advantages claimed for this arrangement are, 1, the mill is more steady; 



39 

2, lior.ses aud cane do uot interfere witli each other ; 3, the bagasse is more easily re- 
moved; 4, the iaice Hows down into the evaporator. For five ditlereut sizes the prices 
are $90, $105, $140, $155, $240. 

Plate VII represents a horizontal Victor mill adapted to steam or water power, of 
which three sizes are in the market, viz, l^o. 1, weighiu<;- 2,200 ponnds, and valned at 
$2.50 ; No. 2, 3,500 pounds, $350 ; No. 3, 4,000 pounds, $4.50. 

Plate VIII, Fig. 1, represents a portable "Cook" evai>orator, of which three sizes 
are for sale. These pans are 44 inches wide and from 6 to 9 feet in length, ranging 
from 40 to 90 gallons jier day. When tlie pans are of galvanized iron, the prices are. re- 
spectively, $65, $75, and $85. With copper pans the prices are from $55 to $70 higlier. 
Each contains a portable furnace. The whole can be lifted into a wagon bj' two men 
and transported from field to field with a light Victor mill, and thus save the transpor- 
tation of the cane. 

Plate VIII, Fig. 2, represents a " Cook" stationary evaporator, of which there are 
seven sizes, adapted to corresponding sizes of the Victor mills. They ai"e bedded upon 
brick or stone arches, and are 44 inches wide, ranging in length from 6 to 15 feet. 
Their capacity is from 40 to 180 gallons jjer day, and their price from $30 to $90 for 
galvanized-irou pans, and from $80 to $210 for copper ]>ans. Furnace fronts and doors 
cost from $5.50 to $8 ; grates, from $4 to $8. 

Plate IX represents still larger sizes of these pans. 

Plate X represents a complete sugar factory, the size and cost of which must neces- 
sarily vary with the number of acres of sugar-cane to be worked up. A is the juice - 
tank ; the juice, after running from the crushing-mill into a tank on a lower level, is 
pumped up to thejuice-tank in the upper portion of the building. B is the defecator 
for the elimination of crude impurities. C C are settling tanks; D, supply tauk from 
which the evaporator is fed ; E, a Cook evaporator : F, supply-tank for the strike-pan ; 
G, strike-pan, in which the semi-siruj) is reduced to the proper consistency for sugar ; 
H H, receptacles for scum ; I, truck for carrying the sirup to the sugar room ; J, the 
sugar-room, with cooling-boxes, barrels, &c. ; here an even temperature is kept up to 
assist granulation ; here, also, the sugar is drained and stored. 

Plate XI represents a steam plant, or steam train, consisting of a duplex mill for 
grinding the cane. It has two sets of housing, and each set two rollers. Each stand 
of housing and rollers is placed 6 or 8 feet from centers, and the intermediate space 
occupied by an endless carrying- frame traveling in the same direction as the rotation 
(if the wheels, and at the same speed. The cane is fed to one set of rolls, called the 
roughing-roUs, which slit and crush it. It is then received by the carrying-frame of 
wooden slats and carried to the other set of rolls. It is moistened, on its way, by a 
spray of water thrown by a steam jet. This saturates and fluxes the sucrose, not yet 
extracted, which is then obtained. This residuum, though diluted with water, is the 
richest of the whole. This mill, when properly fed, will grind from 5 to 6 tons of 
eaue in twenty-four hours. 

Plate XII is a vertical view of the last. 

Plate XIII is a defecating tauk 8 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 2 feet deep. Over the 
bottom is spread a manifold of steam pipe, and contains a strainer through which the 
juice, perfectly clear, can be drawn off. The tank may be cleansed with pure water 
for a fresh filling. Each tank-full can be handled in thirty minutes. Two of these 
tanks are connected with the mill, and are ample for defecating 600 gallons per hour. 

Plate XIV represents au evaporator G feet in diameter and 4 feet deep. Each is 
furnished with coils of steain-pi[ie 125 feet long, and a diaphragm directing the cur- 
rents of evolution over the steam-coils up the outside and down the middle axis. In 
the center of the pan is an adjustable, funnel-shaped skimmer, which may be raised 
or lowered, so as to be on a level with the surface of the boiling juice. It catches all 
the scum gathered by the currents and delivers it through a pipe penetrating the bot- 
tom, outside of the evaporator. Two evajwr ators will reduce 600 gallons of defecated 
juice to one-half the volume in an hour and a half. 

Plate XV represents the concentrator, which differs from the evaporator by having 
a. closed top and a water-jet condenser, producing a vacuum. In this vacuum 600 
gallons of evaporated juice are reduced to 200, or only one-sixth the volume that en- 
tered the evaporator. This i-educed liquid is called semi -sirup, and can be stored in 
tanks or shipped in barrels to a refinery, or reduced to a dense sirup in a vacuum-pan 
constructed very much on the same plan as the concentrator. 

A comjilete sugar-mill, embracing the above apparatus, with engines, boilei's, cen- 
trifugal dryer, tubs, tanks, and all other necessary appliances for making sirup and 
sugar, will cost about $10,000. 

Plate XVI represents a A'ery heavy crushing mill. The smallest size of this series 
of mills has rollers 12 inches in diameter and 20 inches long, expressing from good ripe 
cane about 150 gallons of juice per hour. Larger sizes do a proportionately larger 
share of work. 

Plate XVII is an " exhaust steam clarifier." Heat is applied to the juice ; the albu- 
men is coagulated and, the acid neutralized by milk of lime, which also renders insol- 



40 

iible sundry soluble iuipiu'ities and precipitates tliem. But as au excess of liine attacks 
the sugar ill the juice it is of special importance that its quantity be resiulated. In this 
clarifier this is done by means of a vessel fjraduated by inches, each inch correspond- 
iuj,' to 4^ cubic inches of milk of lime. The total quantity of the lime ranges from 
0.01 to 0.03 per cent, of the total weight of the juice. Wlien the proper temperature 
has been acquired, the scum rises to the top aud begins to break and show bulbs. 
The proper point of defecation is then considered to have been reached, and the clari- 
fied sirup is drawn off by means of a double cock iu the bottom of the defecator. The 
scum and precipitates are discharged through another channel. 

Plate XVIII is a "direct steam evaporator," which receives the clarified juice from 
the steam clarifier shown in Plate XVII. The juice is boiled by means of a coiled steam 
pipe. Tlie resuUing scum boils over into a trough arouud the upper edge of the evap- 
orator and is itself subjected to defecation afterwards. 

Plate XIX represents a " steam train" of three clarifiers and one evaporator, repre- 
sented in Plates XVII and XVIII. This steam train retjuires but few men to work 
it and is very cleanly in its action. It dispenses with pumps aud ladles. The sirup 
is fully prepared for the vacuum-pan. 

Plate XX represents a vacuum-pan. This pan can be placed upon framing or walls 
built up in the house, but it is considered preferable to support it upon iron columns 
as in the plate and independent of the building. The elevation should be sufficient to 
admit of discharging the "strike" into the "centrifugal mixer." The plate shows a 
vacuum-pan ai-ranged to work on the " wet " system ; that is, in combination Avith a 
water-pumii. The sirup is boiled at a very low temperatui'c, producing a larger quan- 
tity and a better quality of crystallized sugar, yet the boiling is so rapid that the 
sugar does not get time to become inverted. Heat is applied to the sirup by means of 
a coil of copper pipe filled with steam, which, on being condensed, is conducted back 
to the boiler. 

Plate XXI represents a combination styled " Multiple effect." It embraces a direct 
fire evaporator for the first juice, working under a vacuum in connection with a strike 
pan with the combined water and vacuum pump, also the mixer aud centrifugal ma- 
chine. This machinery is especially designed for making sugar from sorghum aud corn- 
stalks. The process consists in boiling the juice in a tubular or cylindrical boiler very 
similar to a steam-boiler, the fuel being only the bagasse. The vapor is conducted by 
pipes to the valves in the vacuum-pan and admitted to the copper coil which serves 
as a surface condenser. A- vacuum-pump draws off the condensed liquid and the 
vapors. As the liquid thickens it is passed to the strike-pan where, by means of a 
higher vacuum, the boiling is perfected into crystal. It is then discliarged into the 
mixer, where it is gently stirred to prevent "settling." It is then drawn through 
valves in the bottom of the mixer into the centrifugal, where the molasses is eliminated 
and the granulated sugar fitted for packing. The molasses is discharged into a tank 
and reboiled, after which it is passed into cans aud allowed to granulate ; finally, the 
molasses is eliminated, as in the first run. The only use of a steam-boiler iu this process 
is to drive the cane-mill and the centrifugal, which will require a small engine. This 
feature is claimed as a special advantage iu cutting down the expense of the ])roces8. 
As there will be no very heavy pressure there is no danger of explosion, and conse- 
quently the boiler may be made less expensive. This method of reducing in vacuo pre- 
vents carameiization, as the air is kept oft' and only a low heat employed. The prices 
of this apparatus vary with the results to be obtained. 

Plate XXII represents a form of centrifugal machine called the "German style." It 
runs in elastic bearings and does not require to be set in masonry. Its manufacturers 
claim that it will purge from 1,000 to 1,500 pounds of sugar per hour. Price, $400, with 
$10 extra for boxing. 

Plate XXIII represents a " Hanging centrifugal machine," especially adapted to cer- 
tain classes of gummy sugars. It'reqnires no specific skill in the operator. Price, 
without frames, $775; witli frames, !|955, or .$900 eacli for two machines ; boxing, $10 
for each machine. It is hirger than the German machine described in Plato XXII, and 
discharges the sugar through th.e bottom. It will purge from 2,000 to 1,000 pounds of 
sugar per hour. 

Plate XXIV represents the latest improved centrifugal driven from below. It will 
purge from 2,5O0 to 5,000 pounds of sugar per hour. Price, with frames, $1,000 ; two ma- 
chines, $950 each ; a machine without frames, $S50. The sugar is discharged througli 
the bottom. 

Plate XXV, Fig. 1, is a cheap home-made evaporator, which can be put together by 
any ingenious mechanic. It is constructed by putting wooden sides and ends upon a 
galvanized iron or copper bottom. 

Plate; XXV, Fig. 2. is a pan for cooling sirup sent by a correspo'idont. Its methoiL 
is sutfi'jiently clear from the diagram. 

Plate XXVI represents a newly-invented "evaporator." It is available either for con- 
centrating cane-ju ice to the density of sirup to be finished in tlie vacuum-pan or, if 
the vacuum pan is not used, directly up to the point of granulation of sugai*. Th 



41 

tlefeeated juice is "bronglit tlirongli a. canal sliown on the left of the picture and de- 
posited continuously in tbe first table of the evaporator. When it has acquired a depth 
of two inches steam is introduced into the pipes and ebullition immediately commences 
and the impurities begin to rise. The latter How outward to the sides and are held there 
l)y a constant outward curreut. They may be removed without any waste of the juice. 
The discharge of water resulting from condensation is regulated by a valve. The gate 
is then opened and the juice is passed to the second table where it is subjected to the 
.same process, and then" to the third table. By the time it is ready to pass from the 
third table it is reduced to a density varying from 18° to 32° B. It then passes to the 
strike-pan on the fourth level where it is brought up to the sugar point. It is then 
drawn, either in a continuous stream or by "strikes," into molds or liogsheads. Not 
less than 1.5 hogsheads or 30 moulds should be ready for the sirup. These should re- 
ceive, each in its tnru, about 2 inches depth of the liquid, and when the last lias re- 
ceived its quota begin again at the head of the series. This method of filling gives 
the sugar time to crystallize a'Hl cool ; it dispenses with tanks and with a second hand- 
ling, "it is claimed in behalf of this apparatus that its elimination of impurities at the 
commencement of the operation, the limited time in which the sugar is subjected to 
the heat, and the low temperature used, cause only a minimum of inversion of cane sugar 
into grape sugar. An apparatus producing a cubic yard of sugar per hour is 29 feet 
long'by 7 feet xNide. It Avill require about 4,000 bricks to construct the walls. These 
trains are of all sizes desirable, with capacities ranging from 100 gallons per day to 
1,500 gallons per hour. Prices from |50 for two small pans to |3,000 for large trains, 
complete. 

Plate XXVII represents the Stubbs Evaporator. The first cut shows the pan with 
two compartments. The first occupies three-fourths of the pan ; the second compart- 
ment the remaining fourth. The juice enters the first compartment near the smoke- 
stack in a regular stream, passing around the circle over the fire-box to cross-parti- 
tions, where it thickens to a senn-sirup. Biiing over the hottest part of the furnace, 
it raises to a light foam, which breaks to the lowest point where the cool juice enters, 
not only keeping back the green scum, but carrying all the scum off of thirty feet sur- 
face, where it is scraped off without loss of sweet. The semi -sirup is turned into the 
second compartment at intervals to be finished under full control of heat governed by 
<lampers. When done, to be run oft' with scraper, letting semi-sirup follow. Boil rap- 
idly with two inches juice in order to cleanse well. 

The second engraving represents the furnace. Should he built of brick, with eight- 
inch wall fourteen inches above fire-grate ; the balance seven inches. A sectional arch 
with one damper in center, hinged at the back end to swing to back wall ; also dam- 
l)er across the mouth of left flue. The smoke-stack stands back as the cut indicates. 
The smoke-stack should be 16 feet high, 14 inches diameter. 

Price of evaporators. 

Galvanized iron : 

No. 20, 16 feet long by 40 inches wide $50 

No. 20, 12 feet long by 36 inches wide 40 

Charcoal iron : 

No. 20, IG feet long by 40 inches wide 40 

No. 20, 12 feet long by 36 inches wide 35 

Plate XXVIII represents the mill, evaporators, &c., on the grounds of the Depart- 
ment of Agricjilture at Washington, where the experiments of the last two years were 
performed. A description will be found in the chemist's report. 

SUGAR-MAKING AMONG THE HINDOOS. 

In 1822 the English East India Company published an exhaustive report upon "the 
culture and manufacture of sugar in British India." In the appendix is printed an 
extract from "Dr. Buchanan's journey from Madras, through Mysore, Cauara, and 
Malabar, in 1800." The following illustrations present the processes in iise among 
Hindoo sugar producers at the beginning of the present century. 

Plate XXIX represents a sugar-mill consisting of mortar, beam, lever, pestle, and 
regulator. The mortar is constructed of a tree trunk, and is about 10 feet long and 14 
inches in diameter, and is sunk 8 feet in the ground, leaving but 2 feet above the siu-- 
face. The upper end is hollowed into an inverted conical depression in which the cane 
is crushed by a pestle, the juice being delivered by a tube running from the lower 
part of the mortar. Around its edge is a groove which receives what juice may over- 
flow and conducts it by a pipe into the main receptacle. The beam is a portion of a 
tree 16 feet long and 6 inches thick, cut below the forks. The angle is enlarged and 
rounaed, so as to embrace the mouth of the mortar around which it revolves, su^jported 
by a flange. The forks are then drawn together. On this beam are seated the mill- 
feeder and the ox-driver. The lever holds the pestle in its place, being held at one 

4 AG 



42 

end by an upright piece of timber, called the regulator, to which it is pinned, and at 
the other end by ropes. The revolution of the pestle upon the small cut cane expreesej 
the I'uice ; the bagasse is removed by hand. The shape of the lever and the cavity in 
vrhi'ch it receives the upper end of the pestle causes the latter to revolve on an oblique 
axis ; the lower end of the pestle is conformed to the conical depression in the mortal 
so that the cane may be subjected to the closest pressure. It is scarcely necessary tc 
repeat the observation of Dr. Buchanan, that the machine is badly contrived. The 
suo-ar-makers of the village have each his turn at the mill, which is run night and day till 
alf the crops have been worked up. The mill grinds about 56 pots of juice, or 21t 
gallons, in 24 hours. The oxen are driven at a rapid gait, and require to be changed 
several times during the day anel night. 

Plates XXX and XXXI represent modified forms of the Indian sugar-mill. The 
principle of ijressure is the same in all, being the revolution of a pestle on an oblique 
axis in the conical depression of the mortar. The modifications are shown with suffi- 
cient clearness in the plates. 

Plate XXXII represents a set of sugar machinery in iise at Burdwan, near Calcutta, 
in 1792, as described in the minutes of the Indian Board of Trade of that year. The 
mill consists of two small wooden grooved cylinders working in a horizontal plane and 
propelled by two men turning spokes connected with each cylinder. This apparatus 
seems to be very inefficient compared with what was employed on the West India su- 
gar plantations, but it is cheap, and worked by cheap labor. Heavy iron cylinders 
brought from England at great expense were unable to compete with the native ma- 
chinery on account of the greater cost of working. In the left rear of the sugar-mill is 
seen a; furnace with earthen jiots for the boiling of the juice. The furnace is shielded 
from the weather by a shed open at the sides. The juice is dipped from one pot to 
another till, in the judgment of the boiler, it is sufficiently condensed. In this state it 
is called goor, a word which has no equivalent in English. The English in Hindoos- 
tan confound goor, sirup, or molasses under the general name of jaggary. 

The goor goes to the nujrali or boiler, who purities it by diflerent processes. The gen- 
eral method is that of boiling. Sometimes the molasses is first drawn from the grain 
and the goor is then boiled with milk, or with milk and water. In other cases the 
goor is only boiled and jjurified. Milk, lime, and lye from plantain ashes are used tc 
cleanse and granulate the sugar. When boiled sufficiently it is put into earthen pots 
and two sorts of aquatic weeds of a supposed alkaline quality are used to drain off the 
sirup as clay is by Europejfn refiners. Clay is also used in some parfcsof India. Sugai 
thus prepared is called cheenee. Variations from the above methods are noted as prev- 
alent in different parts of the country. 

Stewart's process. 

Plate XXXIII represents the necessary addition to the ordinary sorghum machinery 
if the process of Mr. F. L. Stewart, of Murraysville, Pa., be used in making sugar. 
The plate illustrates the mode of using his powder B. H is the heating-tank, D the 
defecating-tank, from which clear juice is passed from the heater H. A stout, well- 
hoojied half-barrel or ten-gallon cask, C, stands alongside the defecating tank, the 
head of which is pierced with two holes, at opposite sides, one five-eighths inch and 
the other one and a quarter inches in diameter. F is a lacquered funnel, with a gum 
ring fitting around its neck ; 7- a plug, with gum fittings to insert tightly in the throat 
P, and a piece of rubber tubing, R. 



Plate I. 




EARLY AMBE.^ CANE. 

|G^o^yll upon the Eepartment groun Is huiug the season of 1879, 



Plate II. 




jncrr:c\:l 



CHINESE SORGO CANE. 
Syuouym : Sumac Cane, Chinese Cane. 

I Grown upon the Department fjrounds during the season of 1879.] 



Plat3 III. 




"^arycdel. 



WHITP: LIBEKIAN CANE. 

Syuonym: Goosk Nkck, Wliite Inipliec. 

[Grown on the Dipartuunt j;ioiiii(!s ihiiiii^ tliu scasou of 1879.] 



Plate 17. 




'\MTy. M 



HONDURAS CANE. 

Syuouyms: Mastodox, Sprangle-top, Honey Cane. 

[Grown on the Department grounds during the season of 1879.1 



Plate V 




VICTOR CANE MILL (VEKTICAL). 



Plate VI. 




VERTICAL VICTOR MILL. 

[With horse-powei' below.] 



Plate VII 




HORIZONTAL VICTOR MILL. 



■Fig. 1. 



Plate VIII. 




rOKTABLE COOK EVAPOKATOR. 



Fig. 2. 




COOK STATIONARY EVAPORATOR. 




2 

CD 
t— t 

X 




2 

CO 

X 




MCDOWELL'S STEAM PLANT OK TRAIN. 



\ 




MCDOWELL'S STEAM PLANT OR TRAIN. 

[Vertical view.] 



Plate XIII. 




McDOWELL'8 DEFECATING TANK. 



Plate XIV. 




MCDOWELL'S EVAPORATOR. 



Plate XV. 




MCDOWELL'S CO^'CE NTK ATOK. 




i , „ ,i 



Plate XVII. 





EXHAUST STEAM CLAMPER. 



V 



^ 



Plate XVIII. 





DIRECT STEAM EVAPORATOR. 



Plate XX. 



--^'J-TJ'' JllHI|l|l|1llffllU 




VACri'M PAX. 




X 



Plate XXII. 




"GERMAN STYLE" CENTRIFUGAL. 



\^ 



Plate XXIII. 




Tniiinininniiii imii nulllilllllilM Mli>Hlllllllil>!llllHii 
HANGING CENTEIFUGAL. 



Fig-. 1. 



Plate XXV. 




COMMON FLAT EVAPOEATING PAN. 

Wooden sides and partition. 



Fig-. 2. 




COOLING PAN. 

The hot sirup passes through the iron pipelmmersed in cold water. 



Plate XXVII. 




STUBB'S EVAPORATOR. 



\ 



Plate XXVIII. 




SIGAR MACHINERY OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

[United Statps Siiiiar Mill. ExpciinKiits for two yeai'S on jriounds of Depaitmciit of AKiiciiltiire. Uesciiiitioii in the Chciuist's Ki'poit. 



PlateXXIX. 




SUGAR MILL IN HINDOOSTAN IN 1800. 



I 



Plate XXX. 




SUGAK MILL IN HINDOOSTAN IN 1800. 



Plate XXXI. 




SUGAR MILL IN HINDOOSTAN IN 1800. 



Plate XXXII. 




SUGAR MACHINERY IN HIXDOOSTAN IN 17D2. 



Plate XXXIII. 





MACHINERY USED IN STEWART'S PROCESS. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



002 685 932 3 



/ 



